What properties of perception are manifested in these examples. Types of perception in psychology

With the help of this article, you will learn all the nuances associated with the types and properties of perception. Perception is a mental process that shows a reflection of what is happening in reality, while combining various parts and properties of these phenomena and objects, influencing the human senses.

We suggest you familiarize yourself with the types and basic properties of perception.

Types of perception and their characteristics

Perception is divided into the following types:

• tactile;
• auditory;
• visual.

Tactile perception includes a system of touch, tactile, skin contact. In this type of perception, the organ of touch is the hands of a person - it is with their help that he receives information that the consciousness processes. Also, some objects have properties that a person cannot perceive with the help of smell, sight or hearing.

Auditory perception begins to develop in a person from birth and is very important for a fulfilling life. Auditory perception implies a person to identify and distinguish the various sounds of the world around them using their main characteristics and definitions. These characteristics include the ability to distinguish different sounds in terms of volume, speed, timbre and pitch. Without auditory perception, a person is considered inferior, which is why auditory perception is so important for every person.

Also, the main types of perception include visual. It implies the unification of the processes of creating and constructing a visual image of the world around person. These processes include the difference in color tones, the definition of the color itself, the evaluation of darkness and lightness, and brightness. All these processes arise in a person at the level and have an instinctive, innate character. The correct development of visual perception is extremely important for a person. It helps him to correctly navigate in space. With the help of visual perception, a person can evaluate how objects are located relative to each other. Understands the shape of voluminous things. Visual perception is important to develop from the moment the child is born, it is then that his visual functions begin to work. A person with insufficient visual perception may experience certain difficulties, especially when studying creative works, when writing, and he may also have difficulty learning speech grammar.

Various objects around us and phenomena occurring around us affect and are reflected in his consciousness. This is the perception of the surrounding world, which in Latin means Perception is different for each person, but, despite this, there are common characteristics that are called - the properties of perception.

Activity - perception is always in action, in search of new information. He cannot be stopped. You can only dull, muffle, make it so that you do not pay attention for a while. The process in which the properties of perception are dulled in psychology is called hypoesthesia. Usually, hypoesthesia is associated with mental fatigue.

The main properties of perception:

1. objectivity- this is a property of perception, directly connected with the object and caused by it. We attribute all the information received to one or another subject. The main role here is played by movement and touch. The object is perceived as a separate body, separated from space and time. If there is no real impact, then there is no perception. Rather, there is no normal perception, it is distorted. When exposed to monotonous objects, repetitive patterns or sounds, susceptibility is dulled.
2. Integrity- sensations provide information about the individual properties of an object, perception - a holistic image based on generalization. Due to this property, the world is perceived in the form of things, in the form of events taking place in it. If it were not for integrity, the world would be perceived as chaos, as separate sounds and touches. There would be no recognition of the whole.
3. Structurality(generalization) - this in no way means the sum of sensations. We perceive a generalized structure of sensations, the formation of which occurs over time. For example, when we listen to music, this is a generalized structure, we hear notes in their order.
4. constancy is constancy. The conditions under which the properties of perception operate are very diverse and changeable. But the object is perceived as permanent, regardless of its surrounding conditions. This makes the object recognizable. For example, "a monkey, it is also a monkey in Africa." The example, of course, is a bit exaggerated, but, in general terms, this is so.
5. meaningfulness. Despite the fact that perception appears when there is some impact on the receptors, the images, in themselves, have a semantic meaning. For example, animals take everything literally: the crunch of a branch alarms them, meaning the approach of danger, they put a bowl, which means they will feed, etc. A person thinks on a large scale, understanding the essence of the subject. From perceived things and events, a person is able to draw completely “indirect conclusions”. For example, from a single image, a person is able to come up with or think out the whole picture and, in addition, explain it. A person perceives hints, conjecturing himself what they wanted to convey to him.
6. Selectivity- a person prefers some objects over others. And this is normal.

The properties of perception in their complex constitute perception, in which an adequate image of an object is formed and perceived. It is divided into the following types:

visual;

auditory;

Tactile;

And other types.

The properties of perception can be characterized, quantified. For example, the perceptual threshold is the level of sensitivity at which the receptor registers that a stimulus is present. This is a physiological threshold. And there is also a threshold of awareness of the perception of the stimulus. For example, sometimes we feel something but cannot explain what it is. The threshold of perception can be measured using special instruments. The volume of perception is measured without instruments.

Perception- this is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena arising from the direct impact of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. Perception makes possible a holistic reflection of the world, the creation of an integral picture of reality, in contrast to sensations that reflect individual qualities of reality.

The main properties of perception include the following: objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, meaningfulness, apperception, activity.

Objectivity of perception- this is the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not in the form of a set of sensations that are not related to each other, but in the form of individual objects. For example: So, having heard a sound or smelled, we make certain approximate movements in relation to the source of irritation.

Another property of perception is integrity. Unlike sensation, which reflects the individual properties of an object, perception gives a holistic image of the object.

The integrity of perception is also related to its structure. This property lies in the fact that perception in most cases is not a projection of our instantaneous sensations and is not a simple sum of them. For example, if a person listens to some melody, then the previously heard notes still continue to sound in his mind when information about the sound of a new note arrives.

The next property of perception is constancy. Constancy is the relative constancy of certain properties of objects when the conditions for their perception change. For example, a truck moving in the distance will still be perceived by us as a large object, despite the fact that its image on the retina will be much smaller than its image when we stand near it.

Perception depends not only on the nature of the stimulus, but also on the subject himself. They perceive not the eye and ear, but a concrete living person. Therefore, perception always affects the characteristics of a person's personality. The dependence of perception on the general content of our mental life is called apperception. Perception activates past experience. Therefore, the same object can be perceived differently by different people. So, the mother of a sleeping child may not hear the noise of the street, but instantly reacts to any sound coming from the side of the child.

The next property of perception is its meaningfulness. Although perception arises from the direct action of a stimulus on the sense organs, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. As we have already said, the perception of a person is closely connected with thinking.

Activity(or selectivity) lies in the fact that at any given time we perceive only one object or a specific group of objects, while the rest of the objects of the real world are the background of our perception, i.e. not reflected in our minds. For example, you are listening to a lecture or reading a book and do not pay attention at all to what is happening behind you.

Types of perception

1) Classification according to the leading analyzer in perception

Depending on the analyzers, the following types of perception are distinguished: sight, touch, hearing, smell, taste, kinesthesia. Each of these types of perception involves motor sensations.

2) Classification according to the form of existence reflected in the perception of matter

According to the form of existence reflected in the perception of matter, complex forms of perception are distinguished - the perception of time, movement and space.

Perception of time. This is a reflection of the duration and sequence of phenomena and events. The sense of time is not innate, it develops in the process of accumulation of experience. Time intervals are determined by the rhythmic processes occurring in the human body. Rhythm in the work of the heart, rhythmic breathing, the rhythmic nature of life affect the development of reflexes for time.

Movement perception. This is the perception of space-time movement. Various aspects of movement are perceived: form, direction, speed, scope. The process of motion perception always begins with a general perception of the action being performed, then the complex action is differentiated into individual elements.

Perception of space. Here, the perception of the size, shape, volume, depth or remoteness of objects is distinguished. The perception of the size and shape of objects is due to the joint activity of visual, musculo-motor and tactile sensations.

3) Classification according to the degree of purposefulness of the personality's activity

Perception can be unintentional (involuntary) and intentional (arbitrary). The first type can be caused by the brightness, the unusualness of the surrounding objects, or the correspondence of these objects to the interests of the individual. There is no pre-set goal, no volitional activity. The second type is regulated by the goal, the task, volitional activity.

4) Conscious and subconscious perception

Conscious perception: the signal is strong enough and it reaches consciousness. Subconscious perception: the signal is weak and the message does not reach consciousness. Such signals enter the brain and are processed by the lower centers of the brain (subthreshold perception), not reaching the cerebral cortex and not being realized by a person. But, accumulating, this information is able to influence human behavior.

5) Classification of perceptions by type of activity

Allocate artistic perception, technical, musical and other types.

6) Perception is externally directed and internally directed

Perceptions are externally directed (perception of objects and phenomena of the external world) and internally directed (perception of one's own thoughts and feelings).

7) Classification according to the duration of the perceptual process

According to the duration of the perceptual process, perception can be simultaneous - one-time and successive - deployed in time.

P the cognitive process that establishes an individual picture of the world is called perception. This property reflects the phenomenon or object intact only after the receptors are stimulated. One of the biological functions of the psyche is perception, which transforms and accepts data. Perception develops the inseparability of the reflection of the object, which initiates analysis through the compatibility of sensations.

Too sharp perception of life exhausts the nerves.
Natsume Soseki

Perception in psychology

Perception is more significant than the transmission of neural impulses to the intended areas of the brain. In order for an understanding and representation of an object to occur, a person must transmit sensory information to a certain part of the brain, namely, to feel.

The properties of perception in psychology are divided into 7 subgroups. They are:

• structure, constancy, meaningfulness, apperceptive, selectivity, attribution, objectivity.

  Perceptual Properties

  Perception properties are:

  1. Structurality - this subgroup is strongly associated with integrity, because the shape and color together reflect the object.
  2. Constancy (permanence) is the invariance of the shape and color of an object or phenomenon even under changed physical conditions.
  3. Meaningfulness (understanding) is a form of the human subconscious to distribute objects or phenomena into their inherent categories. Comprehension includes several subspecies:
     Selection is a function that distinguishes the object of perception from the general flow of initial data.
     An organization is a subgroup in which an object is identified by certain sets of properties.
     Distribution of objects and phenomena subconsciously into categories.
  4. Apperceptive is a function that affects the process of perception due to the acquisition of previous skills.
  5. Selectivity is a kind of perception that singles out certain objects or phenomena because of their advantages over others.
  6. Objectivity - personalities gain a full set of sensations that aggregate them into images.
  7. Attribution is a phenomenon when a person attributes some uncharacteristic features to himself or to another person. The definition interprets a person's behavior in terms of his intentions, actions, expressions of emotions, some qualities of the individual, which will later be attributed to the partner.

  Properties of the image of perception

  Perceptual properties fall into two categories:

  1. External:
     Indicate the size.
     Strengthening (both emotionally and physically).
     Contrast (when there is a contradiction with the environment).
     Move.
     Periodicity.
     Innovation and distinction.
  2. Internal:
     Adjustment of reception is the intention to see something that corresponds to past experience. Necessity and explanation is a function when a person is able to see what he considers important or necessary for him.
     Experience is the perception of factors that a person has been taught in the past. I am a concept - the world is perceived only around itself. Personality traits - pessimists see the environment from a negative point of view, while optimists, on the contrary, see it in a favorable shade.

  Selectivity of perception

  Properties of perception in psychology distinguish three principles of perception selectivity:

  1. Resonance - the necessity and significance of the matched needs of a person is assimilated faster than unselected ones.
  2. Protection - that which hinders a person's expectations is much worse perceived.
  3. Alertness - something that can harm the psyche of a person, is recognized the fastest.

  Examples of Perceptual Disorders

  Illusion

  The properties of perception in psychology can be erroneous, so to speak, it is a modified perception of the environment and objects. Such a violation can be observed both in a mentally ill person and in a completely healthy person. The properties of perception in the psychology of illusions by a healthy person can be completely different. Physiological and physical deception, as well as the illusion of inattention, can occur in any person who does not have psychological health problems.

  optical illusions

  The main properties of the perception of illusions are:

  • Illusions that are related to the laws of physics. For example, the properties of sensation and perception of an object that borders on a transparent medium. If you put a spoon in a jar of water, it will appear broken. This kind of visual illusion is called a mirage. The function of analysis is closely connected with physiological illusions. For example, if an overweight person is dressed in black clothes, then visually he will look slimmer than he actually is. Or take a small room, which is pasted over with wallpaper in light colors, it will seem more voluminous. The main properties of the perception of the illusion of inattention are excessive enthusiasm for literary composition, when a person with a healthy psyche does not notice typos and grammatical errors in the work. Visual deception, which is associated with a certain pathology of the mental state. It is divided into three subgroups:
    1. The main properties of the perception of an affective illusion are situations of an increased emotional state of a person, when an individual experiences strong fear, tension or excessive excitement, as well as a state of passion. For example, affective illusions can appear in any person who walks through the cemetery at night.
    2. Verbal (auditory) illusions may appear in an affective state or in a misunderstanding of the conversation of people around, when the patient perceives a neutral conversation as a threat to his own life. Insults, humiliations can be heard, even if no one uttered them. For example, a mentally ill person, even in an empty room, thinks that he is not alone and hears different voices.
    3. The properties of perception in psychology are pareidolic (in other words, parasitic) illusions, they are closely related to the imagination of the individual when he fixes his gaze on objects that have a fuzzy outline. If this kind of disorder is observed, it acquires a certain fictional character. For example, in the constant movement of clouds in the sky, a person can see portraits of saints, and in the drawings that are depicted on the wallpaper - various animals and unknown creatures. This kind of illusions appear due to a lack of tone of consciousness when the background of stay is intoxicated.

    13. The concept of perception. Properties and types of perception

    Perception is a process of direct sensory reflection of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world as a whole. Perception is a complex activity, during which a person deeply knows the world around him, examines the perceived objects. An important component of the activity of perception is movement - the movement of the eye examining the object, the movement of the hand feeling the object. In the process of perception, objects and phenomena of the external world are reflected in all the variety of their aspects and properties.

    Perception properties:

    1. Selectivity (or activity) - depends on the interest, attitudes and needs of a person and determines the preferential allocation of some items compared to others. (for example, when reading a book, we do not notice what is behind us, we delved into the textual content of the book, directed all our thoughts to it).

    2. Objectivity - the ability of a person to perceive the world in the form of objects separate from each other that have properties that cause these sensations.

    3. Apperception - the dependence of perception on the characteristics of a person's personality. (for example, an artist, a botanist will perceive a grove or a field in completely different ways, pay attention to various features).

    4. Meaningfulness - a property showing that a person's perception is associated with thinking, with understanding the essence of an object.

    5. Constancy - a person perceives the surrounding objects as relatively constant in shape, color, size, etc. (e.g., a truck moving in the distance will still be perceived by us as a large object, despite the fact that its image on the retina will be much smaller than its image when we stand near it)

    6. Integrity - perception is always a reflection in the psyche of a holistic image of an object or phenomenon, in the aggregate of their qualities and characteristics, even if some of these qualities are not perceived at the moment. It is formed on the basis of generalization of information received in the form of various sensations about the individual properties and qualities of the object. (for example, we perceive an integral musical melody, and not a consistent set of notes, pauses, sounds).

    Types of perception:

    Perception of space (size, shape, position of an object in space - for example, flying on an airplane, all objects below seem very small to us)

    Perception of time (e.g. sleep-rest time, positive events cause time to pass quickly, negative events to slow)

    Perception of motion (e.g. when driving down the street, objects appear to be moving, but in fact they are not moving)

    visual perception

    auditory perception

    tactile perception

    Olfactory perception

    Taste perception

    14. The concept of memory. Functions and properties of memory

    Memory is a mental cognitive process, which consists in memorizing, storing and reproducing information.

    Memory functions:

    1. Recognition - the currently perceived object or phenomenon was perceived in the past

    2. Reproduction - the process of memory, as a result of which the actualization (revival) in the psyche of previously fixed information takes place.

    3. Memorization is a memory process aimed at fixing new information in the psyche by linking it with previously acquired knowledge.

    4. Retention is a memory process characterized by the retention of received information in memory for a relatively long period of time.

    Memory properties:

    1. Remember (new information)

    2. Recall (information)

    3. Recall

    4. Play

    5. Recognize (previously stored information)

    6. Save (information)

    15. Processes and types of memory

    Memory processes:

    1. Memorization (voluntary, involuntary) is the process of imprinting and subsequent preservation of perceived information (mechanical, meaningful).

    2. Preservation (meaningfulness, memorization strength) is a memory process characterized by the retention of received information in memory for a relatively long period of time.

    3. Reproduction - the process of memory, as a result of which the actualization (revival) in the psyche of previously fixed information takes place:

    The speed of reproduction characterizes the ability of a person to use the information he has in practical activities.

    Accuracy of reproduction - reflects the ability of a person to accurately store, and most importantly, accurately reproduce the information imprinted in memory

    Types of memory:

    1. Motor - this is the memorization of different movements, has more knowledge when memorizing physical exercises, it underlies the development of various labor skills.

    2. Emotional is a memory for feelings. (positive or negative, a feeling of joy or sadness, satisfaction, remorse from a bad deed)

    3. Figurative - figurative memorization techniques (translating information into images, graphs, diagrams, pictures. It can be visual (in normally developed people), auditory (in normally developed people), tactile (most developed in tasters, blind, deaf), olfactory (also), gustatory (also).

    4. Logical (semantic) - a type of memory based on the establishment of semantic connections in the memorized material (logical retelling, which includes: logical understanding of the material, systematization, highlighting the main logical components of information, retelling in your own words)

    5. Instant

    6. Short-term (provides memorization of the information presented once for a short time (5-7 minutes), then it is forgotten - for example, a typist remembers all dots and commas when typing, then forgets by typing the text)

    7. Long-term (the relative duration and durability of the perceived material - for example, a student, having received a task, must remember the instructions received and instructions for its implementation)

    8. Operational (a type of memory that manifests itself in the course of performing a certain activity, serving this activity due to the preservation of information coming from both the CP and the DP, necessary to perform the current activity)

    9. Intermediate - ensures the preservation of information for several hours, accumulates information during the day, and during night sleep is given by the body to clear the intermediate memory and categorize the information accumulated over the past day, transferring it to long-term memory. At the end of sleep, the intermediate memory is again ready to receive new information. In a person who sleeps less than three hours a day, the intermediate memory does not have time to be cleared, as a result, the performance of mental and computational operations is disrupted, attention and short-term memory decrease, errors appear in speech and actions.

    10. Genetic (for example, a child learns a narrow range of simple movements at the beginning of his life, then memorization and reproduction of movements progressively expands into a larger range of complex movements).

    
    

    16. The concept of attention. Functions, types and properties of attention

    Attention is the focus and concentration of the subject at a given moment in time on some real or ideal object.

    1. The function of selection - the essence of attention is manifested primarily in the selection of significant, relevant to the needs, relevant to this activity, influences and ignoring (inhibiting, eliminating) others - insignificant, side, competing influences.

    2. The function of holding (preserving) this activity (saving in the mind images of a certain subject content) until the act of behavior is completed, cognitive activity until the goal is achieved.

    3. The function of attention is the regulation and control of the course of activity.

    1. Involuntary is the concentration of consciousness on an object due to some of its features. (Any stimulus, changing the strength of its action, attracts attention. The novelty of the stimulus also causes involuntary attention.

    Objects that cause a bright emotional tone in the process of cognition (saturated colors, melodic sounds, pleasant smells) cause involuntary concentration of attention. Even more important for the emergence of involuntary attention are intellectual, aesthetic and moral feelings. An object that caused a person's surprise, admiration, delight, for a long time attracts his attention)

    2. Arbitrary is a consciously regulated concentration on an object. (A person focuses not on what is interesting or pleasant for him, but on what he should do. This type of attention is closely connected with the will. Arbitrarily concentrating on an object, a person makes an effort of will, which maintains attention throughout the entire process of activity. With his Arbitrary attention owes its origin to work. Voluntary attention occurs when a person sets himself the goal of an activity, the fulfillment of which requires concentration. Voluntary attention requires volitional effort, which is experienced as tension, mobilization of forces to solve the task. Volitional effort is necessary to focus on the object of activity , not to be distracted, not to make a mistake in actions.The reason for the emergence of arbitrary attention to any object is the setting of the goal of the activity, the practical activity itself, for the implementation of which a person is responsible).

    3. Post-voluntary - entry into the activity and the interest that arises in connection with this. Focus is reduced, stress is relieved.

    Properties:

    1. Concentration - the degree of focus on the object:

    high; - low

    2. Volume - the number of objects that can be captured by attention at the same time:

    3. Switching - the intentional transfer of attention from one object to another:

    Difficult; - light

    4. Distribution - the ability to keep several objects in the field of attention at the same time.

    5. Stability - the duration of focusing on the object:

    sustainable

    unstable

    
    

    17. The concept of thinking. Functions and types of thinking

    Thinking is a process of cognitive activity characterized by a generalized and indirect reflection of reality.

    1. A concept is one of the logical forms of thinking, reflecting the essential properties, connections and relationships of objects and phenomena, expressed by a word or a group of words.

    2. Judgment - one of the logical forms of thinking, which expresses the connection between two concepts.

    3. Inference - a form of thinking in which a certain conclusion is made on the basis of several judgments.

    4. Analogy - a conclusion in which a conclusion is made on the basis of partial similarities between phenomena, without a sufficient study of all conditions.

    5. Analysis is a mental operation in which a complex object is divided into its component parts.

    6. Synthesis is a mental operation, which consists in combining various parts, elements, sides of an object into a single whole.

    7. Generalization - the process of highlighting the similarities between objects, highlighting the common in these objects. For example, you can find something similar between the most heterogeneous objects and combine them into one color commonality class: cherry, peony, blood, raw meat, boiled crayfish

    The selection of types of thinking is carried out for various reasons:

    1) According to the form and, accordingly, according to the content of knowledge, the following are distinguished:

    Visual-effective (the most elementary form that arises in practical activities and is the basis for the formation of more complex forms of thinking);

    Visual-figurative (consists in the fact that the thought process in it is directly connected with the perception of the surrounding reality by a thinking person and cannot be performed without it)

    Abstract-logical (thinking based on concepts that reflect the general, essence of objects and are expressed in words or other signs).

    2) By the nature of the tasks to be solved:

    Theoretical

    Practical.

    3) According to the degree of deployment and awareness:

    discursive,

    Intuitive.

    4) According to the degree of novelty and originality:

    Reproductive (reproducing),

    Productive (creative)

    18. The concept of abilities. Abilities and inclinations

    Abilities are individual psychological characteristics of a person that ensure success in activities, in communication and ease of mastering them.

    Capabilities:

    1. General (determine the success of a person in a variety of activities and communication (mental abilities, developed memory and speech, accuracy and subtlety of hand movements)

    3. Theoretical (determine a person's propensity for abstract-logical thinking),

    4. Practical (they underlie the propensity for concrete practical actions. The combination of these abilities is characteristic only of versatile gifted people);

    5. Educational (they affect the success of pedagogical influence, the assimilation of knowledge, skills, skills, the formation of personality traits by a person),

    6. Creative (associated with success in creating works of material and spiritual culture, new ideas, discoveries, inventions. The highest degree of creative manifestations of a person is called genius, and the highest degree of a person’s abilities in a certain activity (communication) is called talent;

    7. Ability to communicate, interact with people

    8. Subject-activity abilities associated with the interaction of people with nature, technology, symbolic information, artistic images.

    18. Forms and operations of thinking. Thinking as a process of problem solving

    1. Concept (reflection in the mind of a person of the distinctive features of objects and phenomena, their general and specific features, expressed by a word or a group of words. Concepts are concrete and abstract. Concrete concepts reflect objects, phenomena, events of the world, abstract ones reflect abstract ideas. For example, "man", "autumn", "holiday" - concrete concepts; "truth", "beauty", "good" - abstract concepts)

    2. Judgment (this is the establishment of links between concepts about objects and phenomena or about their properties and features):

    General (something is asserted about all objects of a certain group, for example: “All rivers flow”)

    Private (Private judgment applies only to some of the objects of the group: "Some rivers are mountainous")

    Single (a single judgment concerns only one object: “Volga is the largest river in Europe”).

    3. Inference (based on several judgments, a certain conclusion is made):

    Inductive (on the basis of a number of particular judgments, a general judgment (conclusion) can be obtained);

    Deductive (extension of the general position to particular cases)

    Operations:

    1. Analysis is the mental division of objects and phenomena into parts.

    2. Synthesis - the mental union of parts or properties into a single whole.

    3. Comparison is a comparison of objects and phenomena, finding similarities and differences between them. (in order to carry out this operation, it is first necessary to single out one or more characteristic features of the compared objects. Then, a comparison is made according to the quantitative or qualitative characteristics of these features)

    4. Generalization - a mental union of objects and phenomena according to their common and essential features.

    5. Concretization - a mental operation characterized by a transition from the general to the specific.

    6. Abstraction is a mental operation based on abstracting from the insignificant features of objects, phenomena and highlighting the main, main thing in them (thanks to abstraction, a person was able to break away from the individual, concrete and rise to the highest level of knowledge - scientific theoretical thinking)

    7. Systematization is the arrangement of individual objects, phenomena, thoughts in a certain order according to any one sign (for example, chemical elements in the periodic table of D. I. Mendeleev).

    Thinking as a process of problem solving:

    There are three types of mental actions characteristic of the process of solving problems:

    1. Indicative actions (analysis of conditions),

    2. Executive actions (selection of examples of solutions),

    3. Finding the answer (verification of the solution with the initial conditions of the problem).

    Types of search for solutions to problems:

    1. search by means of systematic samples;

    2. random;

    3. selective;

    4. selective (selective) searches.

    The process of forming mental actions:

    1. Identification of the orienting basis of action;

    2. Formation of action in material form;

    3. Action is formed in loud speech;

    4. The stage of action formation in external speech to oneself;

    5. Formation of speech in inner speech.

    According to the goals of mental activity, tasks can be distinguished:

    Recognition,

    construction,

    Explanations

    
    

    19. Types and levels of abilities

    Abilities are individual psychological characteristics of a person that ensure success in activities, in communication and ease of mastering them.

    The development of abilities occurs in stages.

    A prerequisite for the development of abilities are DIFFERENCES - these are innate anatomical and physiological features of the structure of the brain, sensory organs and movement

    1. General (determine the success of a person in a variety of activities and communication (mental abilities, developed memory and speech, accuracy and subtlety of hand movements):

    Elementary - to feel, perceive, remember, think, speech ability, experience

    Complex - the ability to play, to study, work, communicate

    2. Special (I determine the success of a person in certain types of activities and communication, where a special kind of inclinations and their development are needed (mathematical, technical, literary and linguistic, artistic and creative, sports abilities)

    Elementary - ear for music, high olfactory sensitivity

    Complex - pedagogical, mathematical, organizational

    1. Giftedness (a person capable of many activities)

    2. Talent (the highest degree of a person's abilities for a certain activity)

    3. Genius (the highest degree of creative manifestations of personality)

    
    

    20. The concept of character. character structure

    Character - an individual combination of stable mental characteristics of a person, which determines a typical way of behavior for a given person in certain life conditions and circumstances.

    Character is a set of stable personality traits that determine the attitude of a person to people, to the work performed. Character is manifested in activity and communication and includes what gives a person’s behavior a specific, characteristic shade for him (hence the name “character”).

    Character can be found in the features of the activity that a person prefers to engage in. Some people prefer the most complex and difficult activities, it is a pleasure for them to seek and overcome obstacles; others choose the simplest, hassle-free paths. For some, it is essential with what results they performed this or that work, whether it was possible to surpass other people. For the rest, it may not matter, and they are content that they did the job no worse than others, having achieved mediocre quality. In communicating with people, the character of a person is manifested in the manner of behavior, in the ways of responding to the actions and deeds of people. The manner of communication can be more or less delicate, tactful or unceremonious, polite or rude. Character, unlike temperament, is determined not so much by the properties of the nervous system as by the culture of a person, his upbringing.

    Character structure - individual character properties depend on each other, are connected with each other and form a holistic organization:

    There are two groups of traits in the character structure. A character trait is understood as certain features of a person’s personality that are systematically manifested in various types of his activities and by which one can judge his possible actions under certain conditions.

    The first group includes traits that express the orientation of the individual (sustainable needs, attitudes, interests, inclinations, ideals, goals), a system of relations to the surrounding reality and representing individually peculiar ways of implementing these relations.

    The second group includes intellectual (characteristic properties of a person that determine the methods and dynamics of solving cognitive problems), volitional (a person’s ability to achieve goals, overcoming internal and external difficulties) and emotional (properties of a person’s character, showing a person’s ability to achieve goals, overcoming internal and external difficulties) character traits.

    Achievements of various sciences in the field of studying the psychological aspects of the management process and aimed at optimizing and increasing the efficiency of this process. 2. The subject and tasks of management psychology Understanding management as a profession based on all sorts of achievements in the interdisciplinary field of scientific and practical knowledge occupies a strong place in modern society. AT...

    Management problems. The personality of an employee as an integral unit of a labor collective is studied by a number of branches of psychology, such as general psychology, labor psychology, engineering psychology, etc. The collective (or group), in turn, is the subject of study of social, military, pedagogical psychology, etc. A distinctive management psychology...