Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. The concept of grammar. Morphology and syntax. The concept of a grammatical category. Types of grammar categories
grammatical meaning
The grammatical meaning accompanies the lexical meaning of the word; The differences between these two types of values are as follows:
1. Grammatical meanings are very abstract, so they characterize large classes of words. For example, the meaning of the verb aspect is always present in the semantic structure of the Russian verb. The lexical meaning is more specific than the grammatical one, therefore it characterizes only a certain word. Even the most abstract lexical meanings (for example, the meanings of such words as infinity, speed) are less abstract than grammatical meanings.
2. The lexical meaning is expressed by the basis of the word, the grammatical meaning is expressed by special formal indicators (therefore, grammatical meanings are often called formal ones).
So, grammatical meaning is an abstract (abstract) linguistic meaning expressed by formal grammatical means. A word usually has several grammatical meanings. For example, the noun 'wolf' in the sentence I would have gnawed out bureaucracy (M.) expresses the grammatical meanings of objectivity, animation, masculine, singular, instrumental (comparison value: `like a wolf, like a wolf`). The most general and most important grammatical meaning of a word is called categorical (general categorical); such are the meanings of objectivity in a noun, quantity in a numeral, etc.
The categorical meaning of the word is supplemented and specified by private (private categorical) grammatical meanings; Thus, a noun is characterized by particular categorical grammatical meanings of animateness ~ inanimateness, gender, number and case.
Grammatical meaning always accompanies lexical meaning, and lexical meaning does not always accompanies grammatical meaning.
For example: ocean - person (different lexical meaning, but the same grammatical meaning - noun, singular, I.p) [Lekant 2007: 239-240].
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings
In Russian morphology, there are different ways of expressing grammatical meanings, i.e. ways of forming word forms: synthetic, analytical and mixed.
With the synthetic method, grammatical meanings are usually expressed by affixation, i.e. the presence or absence of affixes (for example, table, table; goes, go; beautiful, beautiful, beautiful), much less often - alternating sounds and stress (die - die; oils - special oils), as well as suppletive, i.e. formations from different roots (man - people, good - better). Affixation can be combined with a change in stress (water - water), as well as with the alternation of sounds (sleep - sleep).
With the analytical method, grammatical meanings receive their expression outside the main word, i.e. in other words (listen - I will listen).
With a mixed or hybrid method, grammatical meanings are expressed both synthetically and analytically, i.e. both outside and inside the word. For example, the grammatical meaning of the prepositional case is expressed by the preposition and ending (in the house), the grammatical meaning of the first person by the pronoun and ending (I will come).
Formative affixes can express several grammatical meanings at once, for example: in a verb there is an ending - ut expresses both person, number, and mood [Internet resource 6].
A grammatical category is a set of morphological forms opposed to each other with a common grammatical content. For example, the forms I write - you write - write indicate a person and therefore are combined into a verbal grammatical category of a person; the forms I wrote - I write - I will write express time and form the category of time, the word forms table - tables, book - books express the idea of the number of objects, they are combined into the category of number, etc. We can also say that grammatical categories are formed private morphological paradigms. Grammar categories in general have three features.
1) Grammatical categories form a kind of closed systems. The number of members opposed to each other in the grammatical category is predetermined by the structure of the language and does not vary in general (in the synchronous section). Moreover, each member of the category can be represented by one or several single-functional forms. Thus, the grammatical category of the number of nouns is formed by two members, one of which is represented by singular forms (table, book, pen), the other by plural forms (tables, books, pens). Nouns and adjectives have three genders, a verb has three faces, two kinds, etc. The quantitative composition of some grammatical categories in the literature is defined differently, which is actually related not to the volume of the category, but to the assessment of its components. So, in nouns, 6, 9, 10 and more cases are distinguished. However, this reflects only different methods of highlighting cases. As for the grammatical structure of the language itself, the case system in it is regulated by the existing types of declension.
2) The expression of grammatical meaning (content) between the forms that form the category is distributed: I write means the first person, you write - the second, writes - the third; table, book, pen indicate the singular, and tables, books, feathers indicate the plural, large is masculine, large is feminine, and large is neuter, the form large does not indicate gender.
3) Forms that form morphological categories must be united by a common content component (which is reflected in the definition of a grammatical category). This is a prerequisite for highlighting a grammatical category. Without this generality, grammatical categories are not formed. For example, the opposition of transitive and intransitive verbs does not form a morphological category precisely because it is not based on a common content. For the same reason, other lexico-grammatical categories distinguished in independent parts of speech are not morphological categories [Kamynina 1999: 10-14].
Significant and service parts of speech
Parts of speech are the main grammatical classes of words, which are established taking into account the morphological properties of words. These word classes are important not only for morphology, but also for lexicology and syntax.
Words belonging to the same part of speech have common grammatical features:
1) the same generalized grammatical meaning, called part-of-speech (for example, for all nouns, the meaning of objectivity);
2) the same set of morphological categories (nouns are characterized by the categories of animateness / inanimateness, gender, number and case). In addition, words of the same part of speech have word-formation proximity and perform the same syntactic functions as part of a sentence.
In modern Russian, independent and service parts of speech, as well as interjections, are distinguished.
Independent parts of speech serve to designate objects, signs, processes and other phenomena of reality. Such words are usually independent members of the sentence, carry verbal stress. The following independent parts of speech are distinguished: noun, adjective, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb.
Within the independent parts of speech, full-significant and non-full-significant words are contrasted. Fully significant words (nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, most adverbs) serve to name certain objects, phenomena, signs, and non-full-significant words (these are pronouns and pronominal adverbs) only indicate objects, phenomena, signs, without naming them.
Another distinction is important within the framework of independent parts of speech: names (nouns, adjectives, numerals, as well as pronouns) as parts of speech that are declined (changed by cases) are opposed to the verb as a part of speech, which is characterized by conjugation (change by moods, tenses, persons) .
Service parts of speech (particles, conjunctions, prepositions) do not name the phenomena of reality, but denote the relationships that exist between these phenomena. They are not independent members of the sentence, usually do not have verbal stress.
Interjections (ah!, hurray!, etc.) are neither independent nor functional parts of speech, they constitute a special grammatical category of words. Interjections express (but do not name) the feelings of the speaker [Lekant 2007: 243-245].
Since parts of speech are a grammatical concept, it is obvious that the principles, the grounds for distinguishing parts of speech must be primarily grammatical. First, such grounds are the syntactic properties of the word. Some words are included in the grammatical composition of the sentence, others are not. Some of the sentences included in the grammatical composition are independent members of the sentence, others are not, since they can only perform the function of a service element that establishes relationships between the members of the sentence, parts of the sentence, etc. Secondly, the morphological features of words are essential: their mutability or immutability, the nature of the grammatical meanings that a particular word can express, the system of its forms.
Based on the foregoing, all the words of the Russian language are divided into sentences included in the grammatical composition and not included in this composition. The former represent the vast majority of words. Among them stand out the words significant and official.
Significant words are independent members of the sentence. These include: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, adverbs, category of state.
Significant words are usually called parts of speech. Among the significant words, according to the morphological feature of mutability-invariability, on the one hand, names and a verb are distinguished, on the other hand, an adverb and a category of state.
The last two categories - adverbs and the category of state - differ in their syntactic function (adverbs serve mainly as a circumstance, the category of state - as a predicate of an impersonal sentence: "I am sad because you are happy" (L.), and also in that, unlike adverbs, the word categories of state are able to control ("I'm sad", "it's fun for you"; "How fun, having shod with sharp iron on your feet, To slide along the mirror of stagnant, even rivers!" - P.).
Service words (they are also called particles of speech) are united by the fact that they (included in the grammatical composition of a sentence) serve only to express various kinds of grammatical relations or participate in the formation of forms of other words, i.e. are not part of the offer. From a morphological point of view, they are also united by immutability.
These include prepositions, conjunctions, and particles. At the same time, prepositions serve to express the relationship of a noun to other words, unions establish a connection between the members of a sentence and parts of a complex sentence. Particles are involved in the formation of certain verb forms, in the construction of a certain type of sentence (for example, interrogative ones). Words that are not part of the grammatical composition of the sentence include modal words, interjections and onomatopoeia.
Modal words (possibly, of course, maybe, probably, apparently, perhaps, of course, etc.) express the attitude of the speaker to the content of the statement. Interjections serve to express feelings and volitional impulses (oh, oh-oh-oh, scat, well, etc.). Onomatopoeia - words that convey some sounds and noises. These last three categories of words, like auxiliary words, are unchangeable [Rakhmanova 1997: 20].
Lecture 9
Claim for the recovery of a tax sanction.
After a decision is made to hold a natural person who is not an individual entrepreneur liable for committing a tax offense or in other cases where an out-of-court procedure for collecting tax sanctions is not allowed, the relevant tax authority files a claim with the court to recover from this person, a tax sanction, established by the legislation on taxes and fees.
Before applying to the court, the tax authority is obliged to offer the person held liable for committing a tax offense to voluntarily pay the appropriate amount of the tax sanction. If a person held liable for committing a tax offense refused to voluntarily pay the amount of the tax sanction or missed the payment deadline specified in the demand, the tax authority applies to the court with a statement of claim to recover from this person the tax sanction established by the tax code, for committing this tax offence.
A statement of claim for the recovery of a tax sanction from an organization or an individual entrepreneur is submitted to an arbitration court, and from an individual who is not an individual entrepreneur, to a court of general jurisdiction.
The statement of claim shall be accompanied by the decision of the tax authority and other materials of the case obtained in the course of the tax audit.
In necessary cases, simultaneously with filing a statement of claim, the tax authority may send a petition to the court to secure a claim in the manner prescribed by the civil procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 13 of the Code of Civil Procedure of the Russian Federation) and the arbitration procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 8 of the APC).
1. The concept of a grammatical category. Principles of allocation of grammatical categories in language.
2. The main grammatical categories of the name.
3. The main grammatical categories of the verb.
4. Morphological and syntactic grammatical categories.
1. Grammar category - this is a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the categorizing feature is decisive, for example, the generalized value of time, person, pledge, etc., which unites the system of values of individual tenses, persons, pledges, etc. and a system of corresponding forms.
A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as bilateral linguistic units.
Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, for example, the categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, and case are distinguished. The number of opposing members within such categories may be different: for example, the gender category is represented in Russian by a system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine. and cf. kind, but category. numbers - a system of two rows of forms - units. and many others. h.
In the structure of grammatical categories, the most significant is unification principle grammatical classes and units that make up this category. The basis for such a union is a generalized value (for example, the value of time), which combines - as a generic concept - the values of the components of this category. The systemic nature of the language does not consist in a simple external organization of linguistic materials, but in the fact that all homogeneous elements of the structure of the language are interconnected and receive their significance only as opposed parts of the whole.
Semantic opposition is just such a relation, subordinated to the indicated principle. For grammar, this quality is especially important; thus, one can speak of the category of gender or case only if there are at least two opposed genders or cases in a given language; if there is no such opposition, and there is only one form (as for the gender in English or in the Turkic languages, or for the case in French), then this category does not exist in this language at all.
Grammatical meanings are revealed in oppositions (for example, the meaning of singularity, opposed to the meaning of plurality). Grammatical oppositions (oppositions) form systems called grammatical categories.
2. The Russian noun has inflectional categories of number and case and classifying categories of gender, animation/inanimateness and personality.
Grammar number category is inflectional in nouns and is constructed as a contrast between two series of forms - singular and plural. The special forms of the dual number inherent in the Old Russian language have not been preserved in the modern Russian language, there are only residual phenomena (plural forms of the names of paired objects: shores, sides, ears, shoulders, knees; noun forms hour, row, step in combinations like two hours).
For the names of countable objects and phenomena, the singular form denotes singularity, the plural form denotes a quantity of more than one: table- pl. tables, day- pl. days, wood- pl. h. trees, thunderstorm- pl. thunderstorms. Nouns with abstract, collective, real meanings belong to the singularia tantum: thickness, pampering, beast, milk, or to pluralia tantum: chores, finances, perfumes, canned food.
In those cases where the formation of plural forms is possible for the words singularia tantum, such formation is necessarily accompanied by certain semantic complications: cf. "species plural" type wine- pl. guilt, the beauty– beauty, "emphatic plural" when denoting a large number of type water- pl. water, snow– snow, etc.
The number of nouns is also expressed syntactically - by the numerical form of the agreed or coordinated word or by the numeral: A new book- pl. h. new books, The student is reading/reading- pl. h. Students read/read. For indeclinable nouns and pluralia tantum nouns denoting countable objects, the syntactic way of expressing a number is the only one: new coat, one coat- pl. h. new coats, three coats; one pair of scissors- pl. h. two scissors, one day- pl. h. four / several / many days.
case in Russian expresses the relation of nouns to other words in a phrase and sentence. The inflectional morphological category of the case is constructed as a contrast between the six main series of forms and five additional ones that differ in inflections, and the inflections of nouns express both the case meaning and the meaning of the number. For indeclinable nouns, case meanings are expressed only by the forms of agreed or coordinated words (in a sentence, they are a definition or a nominal predicate).
Six main cases:
nominative,
· parental,
· dative,
accusative,
creative,
prepositional.
In the system of six cases, the nominative case is opposed as a direct case to the other five - indirect cases. It is the original form of the paradigm, appearing in the most independent syntactic positions; indirect cases express, as a rule, the dependence of the noun on the word that controls it. Being controlled forms, indirect cases appear in combination with prepositions (prepositional-case forms) and without them (non-prepositional forms): see the house and head for home; to drive the car and sit in the car. Of the six cases, one (nominative) is always unprepositional; one is used only with prepositions, and therefore is called prepositional; the remaining four cases (middle in the paradigm) appear both with and without prepositions. For indirect cases, it is also essential what part of speech they syntactically obey; There is a difference between verbal and adjectival use of case forms.
Genus category for nouns it is classifying, or not inflectional (each noun belongs to a certain grammatical gender) and is built as a contrast of three genders - masculine, feminine and neuter. Masculine nouns are semantically defined as words capable of denoting a male being, feminine nouns as words capable of denoting a female being, and neuter nouns as words incapable of denoting gender. At the same time, animate masculine and feminine nouns (names of people and, in part, names of animals) have a direct connection with the designation of gender (cf. father and mother, teacher and teacher, a lion and lioness), while for inanimate nouns (partially also for animal names) it is indirect, manifesting itself as the possibility of stylistic rethinking in the image of a creature of the corresponding gender (cf. Rowan and oak in the folk song "Thin rowan", as well as Father Frost, Princess Frog etc.). The gender differences of nouns are expressed only in the singular, so the nouns pluralia tantum do not belong to any of the three genders. A special place is occupied by the so-called nouns of the general gender, capable of denoting a person of both male and female gender and, accordingly, have grammatical features of masculine and feminine gender ( orphan, touchy, crybaby).
The gender of nouns is expressed both morphologically - by a system of inflections of a noun in the singular, and syntactically - by the generic form of an agreed or coordinated word (an adjective or another word inflected as an adjective, a verb-predicate). Since the system of inflections of the singular does not unambiguously indicate a certain gender for all inflectional types of nouns (for example, nouns of the II declension can refer to both the feminine and the masculine gender: m.r. servant, female servant), the syntactic expression of the gender of nouns is consistently unambiguous. For the so-called indeclinable nouns, this way of expressing gender is the only one (cf. recent interview, m.r. long-tailed kangaroo etc.).
The ability to indicate gender is also possessed by the forms of agreed and coordinated words in combination with nouns of the general gender ( round(m.s.) orphan and round(female) orphan), as well as with masculine nouns - the names of persons by profession, position ( doctor, engineer, director), which, when indicating the female gender of a person, can be combined (only in the form of the nominative case) with the feminine forms of coordinated and (less often) agreed words: The doctor has come, we have a new doctor(colloquially).
3. The aspect of a verb is a category that expresses differences in the course of an action. This category distinguishes imperfective verbs (answer the question "What to do?": fly) and perfective verbs (answer the question "What to do?": fly in).
The transitivity of the verb is characterized by compatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: read a book, watch a movie; the intransitiveness of the verb is characterized by incompatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: have measles.
A special group is made up of reflexive verbs, which are indicated by the suffix -sya: keep laughing.
Voice of the verb is a category that expresses the relationship between the subject and the object of the action. Active voice verbs are verbs in which the subject names the actor: dad eats an apple; passive voice verbs appear in a passive construction when the object becomes the object of action: the door opened with a key.
Indicative - expresses an action that existed, exists and will exist: go, look. In this mood, verbs have forms of tense (present, past and future), person (1, 2 and 3) and number.
The conditional or subjunctive mood expresses an action that does not really exist, it is only possible or desirable: would have honored. It is formed with the help of a verb in the past tense and a conditional particle by.
Imperative mood - expresses a request, order or prohibition, is not real. It is formed by adding the end of the present tense to the stem -and: bring, give; graduation -those: take, speak; adding particles let, let: let it go, let it go.
Time- a category that expresses the relationship of action to the moment of speech. There are three tenses: present, past and future. The tense of the verb is closely related to the category of aspect: NSV - sell - sold - will sell; SW - sold - selling.
In a sentence, the verb can be a simple verbal predicate: Sasha got up early; compound verb predicate: She wanted to sleep; inconsistent definition: The thought of leaving did not please me..
In Russian, there are verbs that denote an action without a doer (person), so they are called impersonal. Sentences with such verbs are also called impersonal: Ringing in the ears. It's getting warmer outside. It's getting dark.
4. Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories are, for example, the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, the grammatical category of gender is represented in Russian by a system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine. and cf. gender, and the grammatical category of number - by a system of two rows of forms units. and many others. h. This characteristic is historically variable: compare, for example, three forms of number in Old Russian, including the dual, and two in modern Russian.
In Russian morphology, grammatical categories are distinguished: inflectional, whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, tense, mood, verb person, number, case, adjective gender, degrees of comparison), and non-inflectional (classifying, classifying ), whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, gender and animate/inanimate nouns). The belonging of some grammatical categories (for example, aspect and voice) to inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of discussion.
There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identifiable (relational), i.e., indicating primarily the compatibility of forms in a phrase or sentence (for example, gender), and non-syntactically identifiable (referential, nominative), expressing primarily various semantic abstractions, abstracted from the properties, connections and relations of extralinguistic reality (for example, type, time); such grammatical categories as, for example, number or person, combine features of both these types.
Sometimes the term “grammatical category” is applied to broader or narrower groupings compared to the grammatical category in the indicated interpretation - for example, on the one hand, to parts of speech (“noun category”, “verb category”), and on the other hand, to individual members of categories (“masculine category”, “plural category”, etc.).
It is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words from a grammatical category in morphology - such subclasses within a certain part of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings. Such, for example, in the Russian language are collective, concrete, abstract, material nouns; adjectives qualitative and relative; personal and impersonal verbs; so-called ways of verbal action, etc.
The concept of a grammatical category has been developed mainly on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories has been studied less; the boundaries of the application of the concept of grammatical category to syntax remain unclear. It is possible, for example, to highlight the grammatical category of the communicative orientation of the statement, which is built as a contrast between narrative, incentive and interrogative sentences; grammatical category of activity / passivity of the sentence structure; grammatical category of syntactic tense and syntactic mood that form the paradigm of the sentence, etc. The question of whether the so-called word-building categories belong to the grammatical category is also controversial: the latter are not characterized by opposition and homogeneity within the framework of generalized categorizing features.
SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by a grammatical category? What are the principles for highlighting grammatical categories in a language?
2. Name the main grammatical categories of the name.
3. Name the main grammatical categories of the verb.
4. What morphological and syntactic grammatical categories do you know?
Term grammar is used in two senses.
1) Grammar as a set of means, methods and rules for constructing phrases and sentences;
2) Grammar - the doctrine of these means, methods, rules with which you can create phrases, sentences in a particular language.
Grammar in the first sense is synonymous with the concept of the grammatical structure of a language.
Grammar consists of several aspects:
1. Morphology - studies the laws of changing words as parts of speech, as well as the categories inherent in a particular part of speech.
2. Syntax (translated from Greek as "military formation") explores various types of word combinations, relationships between words in a phrase and a sentence, and finally, the sentence as a whole, various types and types of sentences.
MORPHOLOGY(from the Greek "the doctrine of form") - a branch of linguistics, the main object of which are the words of natural languages and their significant parts - morphemes. The tasks of morphology include the definition of the word as a special linguistic object and the description of its internal structure. Morphology describes not only the formal properties of words and the morphemes that form them, but also those grammatical meanings that are expressed within the word (or "morphological meanings"). In accordance with these two major tasks, morphology is often divided into two areas: "formal" morphology, or morphemics, and grammatical semantics.
SYNTAX(from the Greek "system, order") - a set of grammatical rules of the language related to the construction of phrases and sentences. In a broader sense, syntax refers to the rules for constructing expressions of any sign systems, and not just a verbal language.
Its essence- in the unity of grammatical meaning and the means of its expression.
Signs of grammatical meaning are regularity (the meaning of the number for all nouns) and the typified nature of the means of expression, a limited set of means.
The means of expressing this value is directly dependent on the language.
1) in synthetic languages - auxiliary morphemes (affixes), reduplication (orang-orang), suppletivism (human-human), internal inflection (foot-fiit) and stress (hands-hands).
2) In analytical languages - function words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles), intonation, word order (hi hez a pen, hez hee e pen?)
Grammatical categories differ in their parameters (the system of opposition of members, the binomial system of the category of number, the polynomial system of the category of gender), in terms of their correlation with reality, real - lexical-grammatical (the category of number) and unreal - grammatical proper (category of animation or gender)
A wide variety of words also fall under the masculine category: nouns bread, pencil, house, mind, adjectives big, strong, joyful, beautiful, verbs did, built, wrote.
In Russian, a noun has grammatical categories number, gender and case, and the verb - number, tense, type, mood, pledge, person, gender.
The problem of the category of gender is complicated by the fact that the grammatical category of gender, even in the languages in which it is expressed, very often does not coincide across languages. In Russian watch - masculine, in German and French - feminine. There are languages \u200b\u200bthat have a common gender, examples from the Russian language - an orphan, quiet, bore, crybaby.
For living beings, the ways of differentiation within the grammatical category of gender in different languages are very diverse:
1. with the help of special endings: guest - guest, spouse, or special suffixes: actor - actress, bear - she-bear;
2. using different words (heteronymy): father-mother, brother-sister.
3. with the help of contextual clarification only: whale, squirrel, monkey, magpie, shark, hippopotamus (both males and females).
Number category. Man has long distinguished between one object and many objects, and this distinction could not but find its expression in language. The universality of the category of number lies in the fact that it covers not only nouns and adjectives, but also pronouns and verbs.
If the case system in a particular language is not developed, then the language completely dispenses with it, attracting other ways to express grammatical relations (prepositions, word order, and so on).
By grammatical categories are distinguished by the nature of grammatical meanings:
(2) formal categories reflecting the limitations of word forms associated with compatibility (for example, “consensual” grammatical categories participate in the design of agreement relations).
There are also categories shaping, according to which the lexeme can change (for example, case of a noun; gender, number and case of an adjective; tense and mood of a verb); and classifying, characteristic of the whole lexeme and constant for it (for example, the gender of inanimate nouns, animateness/inanimateness of most nouns, transitivity/intransitivity and personality/impersonality of most verbs).
The concept of the grammatical meaning of a word. Means of expressing the grammatical meanings of words. The concept of the grammatical form of a word. The main ways and means of forming grammatical forms of the word.
The grammatical meaning of the word- a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular expression in grammatical forms.
Ways of expressing grammatical meaning.
1.Flexia. So in the phrase "book of Peter" the connection between the words is achieved with the help of the ending a.
2. Functional words (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles, auxiliary verbs) “went to my brother”
3. The order of words acts as a way of expressing grammatical meaning in those languages in which there is no inflection. And the word in the direct and indirect cases retains the same form.
4. Emphasis. For example: Hands-hands, houses-houses. In these examples, the grammatical category of number and case is conveyed by stress.
5. Intonation. Depending on how we say "students are attentive" with an intonation of affirmation or "students are attentive?" with the intonation of the question, the sentence, its meaning, its grammatical design also changes.
6. Suppletivism is a combination of heterogeneous or heterogeneous words into one grammatical pair:
a. when forming degrees of comparison of adjectives: good - better, bad - worse.
b. when forming personal pronouns: I - me.
7. Reduplication (repetitions, doublings) - when there is a complete or partial doubling of the base, for example:
a. to denote the plural in Indonesian orang (person) - orang-orang (people);
b. to form the superlative degree of an adjective in Chinese: hao (good) - hao-hao (very good, excellent).
Grammatical form- this is the connection of grammatical meaning with the grammatical way of its expression. Yes, in verbs jump, burst, shout there is a suffix well-, which indicates a one-time action, and - be- infinitive suffix.
Methods of formation of grammatical forms of the word. Forming methods.
The Russian language belongs to the languages of the synthetic system. Therefore, to identify grammatical meanings, he uses mainly synthetic means.
Shaping methods:
1. Affixation = suffix, ending, prefix express grammatical meaning.
2. Changing the sound composition of the root, expressing various grammatical meanings (remove - remove, send - send); alternation (freeze - freeze, bake - bake).
3. Emphasis: at home (= r.p., singular) - at home (im. p., pl.).
4.Suppletivism - an expression of grammatical meaning using the roots of other words: man - people, I - me, bad - worse.
5. Intonation: for example, in the transfer of various shades of the meaning of the imperative mood of the verb.
Less common, but still used analytical forms. Then the lexical and grammatical meanings receive a separate expression (lexical - by the word itself, grammatical - by an auxiliary component: I will write, let it burst ...).
Finally, are used analytic-synthetic forms, in which grammatical meanings are partially reflected by the form of the main word - the carrier of lexical meaning, and partially - by an auxiliary component: with would go.
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY, a system of opposing rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the categorizing attribute is decisive (see Linguistic category), for example, the generalized meaning of time, person, voice, etc., which unites the system of values of individual tenses, persons, voices, etc. into the corresponding forms. A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of its meaning and the expression of this meaning in the system of grammatical forms.
Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological grammatical categories, there are, for example, grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, in Russian the grammatical category of gender is represented by a system of three rows of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter, and the grammatical category of number is represented by a system of two rows of forms - singular and plural . In languages with developed inflection, grammatical inflectional categories are distinguished, that is, those whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, in Russian - tense, mood, person of the verb, number, case, gender, degrees comparisons of adjectives) and non-inflective (classifying, classifying), that is, those whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, in Russian - gender and animateness-inanimateness of nouns). The belonging of some grammatical categories (for example, in the Russian language - aspect and voice) to inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of discussion.
There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identifiable, that is, indicating, first of all, the compatibility of forms in the composition of a phrase or sentence (for example, in Russian - gender, case), and non-syntactically identifiable, that is, expressing, first of all, various semantic abstractions, abstract from the properties, connections and relations of extralinguistic reality (for example, in Russian - type, time); such grammatical categories as, for example, number or person, combine features of both these types.
The languages of the world are different:
1) by the number and composition of grammatical categories; compare, for example, the category of the verb form, which is specific to some languages - Slavic, etc.; the category of the so-called grammatical class - a person or a thing - in a number of Caucasian languages; the category of certainty-uncertainty, inherent mainly in languages with an article; the category of politeness, or respectability, characteristic of a number of Asian languages (in particular, Japanese and Korean) and associated with the grammatical expression of the speaker's attitude towards the interlocutor and the persons in question;
2) by the number of opposed members within the same category; compare the traditionally distinguished 6 cases in Russian and up to 40 in some Dagestan;
3) according to what parts of speech contain this or that category (for example, in the Nenets language nouns have the categories of person and tense). These characteristics may change in the course of the historical development of one language; compare three forms of number in Old Russian, including the dual, and two in modern Russian.
Lit .: Shcherba L. V. On the parts of speech in the Russian language // Shcherba L. V. Selected works in the Russian language. M., 1957; Gukhman M. M. Grammatical category and structure of paradigms // Studies in the general theory of grammar. M., 1968; Katsnelson SD Typology of language and speech thinking. L., 1972; Lomtev T.P. Proposition and its grammatical categories. M., 1972; Typology of grammatical categories. Meshchaninov readings. M., 1973; Bondarko A. V. Theory of morphological categories. L., 1976; Panfilov V. 3. Philosophical problems of linguistics. M., 1977; Lyons J. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. M., 1978; Kholodovich A. A. Problems of grammatical theory. L., 1979; Russian grammar. M., 1980. T. 1. S. 453-459; Typology of grammatical categories. L., 1991; Melchuk I. A. Course of general morphology. M., 1998. T. 2. Part 2; Gak VG Theoretical grammar of the French language. M., 2004.
A category in the broad sense is any group of linguistic elements distinguished on the basis of some common property; in a broad sense - a certain feature (parameter) that underlies the division of a vast set of homogeneous language units into a limited number of non-overlapping classes, the members of which are characterized by the same value of this feature (for example, the category of case, the category of soul / non-spirit, the category of species) . Quite often, however, the term "category" refers to one of the meanings of the mentioned feature (category of the accusative case). The concept of a category goes back to Aristotle, who singled out 10 categories: essence, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, position, state, action and suffering. The allocation of these categories largely influenced the further separation of parts of speech and members of the sentence.
A grammatical category is a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. A grammatical form is a language sign in which a grammatical meaning finds its regular expression. Within grammatical forms, the means of expressing grammatical meanings are affixes, phonemic alternations (internal inflection), the nature of stress, reduplication, auxiliary words, word order and intonation. In the system of grammatical categories, the determining feature is the categorizing feature, for example, the generalized meaning of time, person, voice, etc., which combines the system of meanings of individual tenses, persons and voices and the system of corresponding forms.
Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological ones, for example, the categories of species, pledge, gender, number, case are distinguished; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). The number of opposing members within such categories may be different: for example, in Russian the grammatical category of gender is represented by a system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine. and cf. gender, and the grammatical category of number - by a system of two rows of forms - units. and plural. numbers. In languages with a developed inflection, the gram categories of the inflectional category are distinguished, i.e. those whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, in Russian - tense, mood, verb person, number, case, adjective gender, degree of comparison) and non-inflective (classifying), i.e. . those whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (in Russian - the gender and animateness / inanimateness of nouns).
The languages of the world are different:
1. by the number and composition of grammatical categories - for some Slavic languages, the aspect category is specific; the category of definition/indefiniteness for languages with an article; the category of respectability (politeness) in Japanese and Korean;
2. by the number of opposed members within the same category (6 cases in Russian and up to 40 in Dagestan)
3. by what parts of speech contain a particular category (in Nenets nouns have categories of person and tense)
The combination of broader and narrower categories in different languages may be different. In Russian, names and participles are declined, and Finno-Ugric names can change according to faces ("my mother", "your mother", etc. "eke-m", "eke-n", etc.)
Grammatical categories are the best studied, their characteristic features include the modifying type of the categorizing attribute, its involvement in syntax, the obligatory choice of one of its meanings for word forms from the categorized set, and the presence of a regular way of expressing it. The presence of the totality of these properties is usually the basis for the unconditional recognition of the grammatical nature of the category, although each of them taken separately is neither a necessary nor a sufficient sign of a grammatical category.
There is not a single grammatical category that would be characteristic of all the languages of the world. The discrepancy between grammatical categories in different languages is the best evidence of the specificity of the selection of grammatical categories in each language.
Thus, the category of certainty-indeterminacy, which is very essential for the Romano-Germanic languages and clearly expressed in these languages with the help of articles, is absent in the Russian language, but this does not mean that Russians cannot have these meanings in their minds. They only express them lexically (by pronouns). If in a language one gramme is expressed by special techniques, then the second one can be expressed negatively - by the absence of a special indicator. For example, in Hebrew: bajio "house", habbajio "certain house", in Tajik, on the contrary, there is only an indefinite article. Therefore, the first property of a grammatical category is the regularity of distinguishing grammatical meanings.
An example of repetition in African and Indonesian languages; dual. The division of animate-inanimate (V. p.) is unusual for ancient European languages; also distinguishing the category of aspect, even the gender of nouns does not know English and all Turkic languages.
The second property is obligatory (in the Romano-Germanic languages, it is impossible to do without the definiteness of indefiniteness).
The number of homogeneous categories is different in different languages; so in languages with declension, the number of cases can vary from 3 (in Arabic), 4 in German, 6 in Russian, 15 in Estonian and more (Dagest languages).
Even sometimes, when there is a correspondence between languages in relation to cases, the same thing can be expressed in different cases: “I went for firewood” (Tv.p.), and in Kazakh it is also expressed in the dative case.
It is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words from grammatical categories in morphology - such subclasses within certain parts of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings. The meaning of plurality in plural forms is grammatical, in collective names it is a fact of lexical meaning, expressed by the basis, and the grammatical method shows the singular (fist-fist-fist), they also distinguish concrete, abstract, material nouns; adjectives qualitative and relative, etc.
The grammatical categories changed over time: there was no definite article in Latin yet, and in vernacular Latin the pronoun "ilia" was used so often that in the Romance languages it became a definite article. Later, the indefinite article arose from the pronoun "one"
Grammema(English) grammeme) - grammatical meaning, understood as one of the elements of the grammatical category; different grammes of the same category are mutually exclusive and cannot be expressed together. So, in Russian, the singular and plural are grammemes of the category of number; one or the other value must be expressed, but not both at the same time. It can also be called a gramme grammatical indicator- a plan for expressing grammatical meaning (in the same meaning, the term proposed by J. Bybee is used gram, English gram), as well as the unity of meaning (content plan) and ways of expressing it.
The grammeme in the language is represented by a number of forms, united by the meaning of the component of this grammatical category, but differing in the meanings of other categories inherent in this part of speech: for example, the grammeme of the second person of the verb in Russian is represented by a number of forms, united by this value, but differing in the values of mood, tense, form , pledge, numbers. Grammemes, expressed by a number of morphological forms, constitute a morphological category. There are also grammes expressed by syntactic forms - classes of syntactic constructions (for example, active and passive constructions) - and constituting syntactic categories.
A gramme, understood as a unit of the content plan, is correlated with a morpheme as a unit of the expression plan. The unit of the expression plan, correlated with the grammes of several grammatical categories at the same time, is called an inflectional morpheme, or inflection.
GRAMME - a component of a grammatical category, which in its meaning is a specific concept in relation to the meaning of a grammatical. category as a generic concept. Such are, for example, G. units. and many others. number, 1st, 2nd and 3rd person, G. owls. and nesov. kind. Like grammar. category as a whole, G. is a unity of meaning and ways of expressing it. In the structure of grammar category G. is one of the grammatical rows opposed to each other. forms constituting grammatical. category as a system. For example, rows of forms opposed to each other present, past. and bud. time form the structure of grammar. time categories. G., considered as elements of the structure of grammatical. categories are close to the “formal categories” of A. M. Peshkovsky and the “categorial forms” of A. I. Smirnitsky. axes. structural type G. - a number of morpho-logical. forms, united by the meaning of one of the members of the grammar. categories. Grammemes of this type are formed morphological. categories. At the same time, G. can be represented syntactically. forms - syntactic classes. structures (cf. active and passive structures). Such G. are syntactical components. categories. A number of grammar forms, which make up the structure of G., includes forms, to-rye are combined by the value of the component of this grammatical. categories, io differ from t. sp. other categories inherent in this part of speech. For example, G. 2nd l. verb in Russian lang. It is represented by a number of forms, united by the meaning of the 2nd letter, but differing in mood, tense, type, voice, number. In some languages (synthetic-agglutinating type, etc.), a generic concept fixed grammatically. category, it can also be the meaning of one of the G. (for example, such is, according to V. Z. Panfilov’s mieiyu, the ratio of singular and plural forms in the Nivkh language). The specified bilateral (content-formal) understanding of G. reveals one of the meanings of this term. Its other meaning appears in those cases when it is used only in relation to the content plan and is interpreted as an elementary unit of grammar. values. The second meaning of the term hG. does not contradict the first, since it is always assumed that G. has one or another formal expression.
There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identifiable (relational), i.e., indicating primarily the compatibility of forms in a phrase or sentence (in Russian - gender, case) and non-syntactically identifiable (nominative), i.e. expressing, first of all, semantic abstractions, abstracted from the properties, connections and relations of extralinguistic reality (in Russian, form, time); such grammatical categories as, for example, number or person combine features of both these types.