The word has lexical and grammatical meaning. Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word

Or several, i.e. is single or multiple.

For example, the word "iceberg" means "a large accumulation of ice or a large block of ice that has broken away from a glacier." The word has no other meaning. Therefore, it is unambiguous. But the word "braid" can have several interpretations. For example, a “braid” is a “kind of hairstyle” (a girl’s braid), and also a “bank near a river of a special shape” (went to swim on a braid) and, in addition, it is also a “tool of labor” (it’s good to sharpen a braid). Thus, the word "braid" is ambiguous.

The grammatical meaning of a word is a certain set of features that allow the word to change its form. So, for a verb, these are signs of time, person, number, etc., and - time, present or past, gender, number, and.

If the main component of the lexical meaning lies, as a rule, in its root, then the grammatical meaning of the word is most easily determined by the ending (inflection). For example, at the end of the name of a noun, its gender, case or number is easy. So, in the sentence "The morning turned out to be cool, but sunny," the noun has the following: nominative, neuter, singular, second. In addition, we can say that the word is a common noun, inanimate.

If you try to determine the lexical meaning of the word "morning", then, for sure, specify that this is the time of day following the night, i.e. start of the day.

If you learn how to correctly determine the lexical and grammatical meaning of words, you will be able to compose syntactic constructions (and sentences) that are beautiful in expressiveness and correct in terms of grammar and use.

Sources:

the lexical meaning is

When morphologically analyzed communion it needs to be defined view, which refers to the constant features of this part of speech. This is also very important for the translator, because the view in translation, the participle often changes the meaning of the entire text to the opposite.

You will need

- table of participle forms.

Instruction

Try putting the full participle in a short form. With the passive, this is most often possible, it always has both forms, but with the real, you are unlikely to be able to do such an operation. In any case, in the modern literary real communion do not have a short form. Some dialects have it. Short form of the passive communion varies by gender and number. However, some suffering communion also in modern short form is usually not put. For example, “breakable”, “readable”, etc. In such cases, a short form exists, but rather refers to an archaic style.

Related videos

Sources:

how to find out the meaning of your name in 2019

Genus noun determines the ending of the dependent word (for example, an adjective or participle), and in some cases the form of the subject (verb, in the past tense). In words of Slavic origin and borrowed ones, one has to be guided by completely different criteria.

You will need

- Internet access;
- manuals on the Russian language.

Instruction

Put the noun in the initial form ( , nominative). Highlight the ending. The noun is masculine if (wind, computer) or "a", "I" (Sasha, uncle). The endings “a”, “I” (column, guest) sign (night, oven) are inherent in the feminine gender. The neuter gender ends in "o", "e", but there is a group of dissimilar nouns of the neuter gender with the ending "I": time, flame.

Words have lexical and grammatical meanings. Lexical meanings are studied by lexicology, grammatical meanings are studied by grammar - morphology and syntax.

Lexical meaning words are a reflection in the word of one or another phenomenon of reality (subject, event, quality, action, relationship, etc.).

grammatical meaning words is a characteristic of it as an element of a certain grammatical class (for example, table- masculine noun), as an element of the inflectional series ( table, table, table etc.) and as an element of a phrase or sentence in which the word is associated with other words ( table leg, put the book on the table).

Lexical meaning of the word individually: it is inherent in the given word and by this delimits the given word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.

On the other hand, grammatical meaning characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it categorically.

Compare words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning, denoting different objects. At the same time, they are characterized by common, the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to the same part of speech - the noun, to the same grammatical gender - masculine and have the form of the same number - singular.

An important feature of grammatical meaning, which distinguishes it from lexical meaning, is mandatory expression: we cannot use a word without expressing its grammatical meanings (using endings, prepositions, etc.). So, speaking the word table, we not only name a certain object, but also express such features of this noun as gender (masculine), number (singular), case (nominative or accusative, cf.: There was a table in the corner. - I see a table). All these signs of form table the essence of its grammatical meanings, expressed by the so-called zero inflection.

Pronouncing the word form table(for example, in a sentence Blocked the passage with a table), we use the ending -om to express grammatical meanings instrumental case (cf.
Hosted on ref.rf
endings used to express case meanings: table-a, table-y, table-e), masculine (cf.
Hosted on ref.rf
ending, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ have feminine nouns in the instrumental case: water-oh), singular (cf.
Hosted on ref.rf
table-ami). The lexical meaning the words table- ʼʼa piece of home furniture, which is a surface of hard material, mounted on one or more legs, and serving to put or put something on itʼʼ - in all case forms of this word remains unchanged. In addition to the root table-, which has the indicated lexical meaning, there are no other means of expressing this meaning, similar to the means of expressing the grammatical meanings of case, gender, number, etc.

TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANINGS OF WORDS IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

Comparison of various words and their meanings makes it possible to single out several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.

1. By way of nomination direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished.

direct(or the main, main) meaning of a word is such a meaning, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, words table, black, boil have the following main meanings: 1. "A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs." 2. "Colors of soot, coal." 3. "Bubbling, bubbling, evaporating from strong heat" (about liquids). These values are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language it meant "throne", "reign", "capital".

The direct meanings of words less than all others depend on context, on the nature of connections with other words. For this reason, direct meanings are said to have the greatest paradigmatic conditioning and the least syntagmatic coherence.

portable(indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.

Yes, the word table has several figurative meanings: 1. "An item of special equipment or a part of a machine of similar shape": operating one hundred l, raise table machine tool. 2. "Food, food": rent a room from table . 3. "A department in an institution in charge of some special range of affairs": reference table .

At the word black such figurative meanings: 1. "Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white": black bread. 2. "Taking a dark color, darkened": black from sunburn. 3. "Kurnoy" (only full form, obsolete): black hut. 4. "Gloomy, bleak, heavy": black thoughts. 5. "Criminal, malicious": black treason. 6. "Not the main, auxiliary" (only the full form): black move in the house. 7. "Physically heavy and unskilled" (long form only): black Work etc.

Word boil has such figurative meanings: 1. "To manifest itself to a strong extent": Work boils . 2. "To manifest something with force, to a strong extent": boil indignation.

As you can see, indirect meanings appear in words that are not directly related to the concept, but approach it through various associations that are obvious to speakers.

Portable meanings can preserve figurativeness: black thoughts, black betrayal, boil with indignation. Such figurative meanings are fixed in the language: they are given in dictionaries when interpreting a lexical unit.

In terms of reproducibility and stability, figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are of an individual nature.

At the same time, in most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative such names as pipe elbow, teapot spout, clock and under. In such cases, they speak of extinct figurativeness in the lexical meaning of the word, dry metaphors.

Direct and figurative meanings are distinguished within one word.

2. According to the degree of semantic motivation values are highlighted unmotivated(non-derivative, primary), which are not determined by the meaning of morphemes in the composition of the word, and motivated(derivatives, secondary), which are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and derivational affixes. For example, words table, build, white have unmotivated meanings. Words canteen, desktop, canteen, completion, perestroika, anti-perestroika, whiten, whiten, whiteness motivated meanings are inherent, they are, as it were, ʼʼproducedʼʼ from the motivating part, word-building formants and semantic components that help to comprehend the meaning of a word with a derivative stem.

For some words, the motivation of the meaning is somewhat obscured, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to identify their historical root. At the same time, etymological analysis establishes the ancient family ties of the word with other words, makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis allows you to highlight the historical roots in the words fat, feast, window, cloth, pillow, cloud and establish their connection with words live, drink, eye, twist, ear, drag(envelop). Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the degree of motivation of one or another meaning of the word should not be the same. In addition, the meaning may seem motivated to a person with a philological background, while the semantic connections of this word seem lost to a non-specialist.

3. Possibly lexical compatibility word meanings are divided into free and not free. The first have in their base only subject-logical connections of words. For example, the word drink combined with words denoting liquids ( water, milk, tea, lemonade etc.), but cannot be combined with words such as stone, beauty͵ run, night. The compatibility of words is regulated by the subject compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts they denote. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, ʼʼfreedomʼʼ the compatibility of words with unrelated meanings is relative.

The non-free meanings of words are characterized by limited possibilities of lexical compatibility, which in this case is determined by both subject-logical and proper linguistic factors. For example, the word win matches with words victory, top, but does not match the word defeat. One can say bow your head (look, eyes, eyes), but you can't -ʼʼ lower your handʼʼ ( leg, briefcase).

Non-free values, in turn, are divided by phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned. The former are realized only in stable (phraseological) combinations: sworn enemy, bosom friend(you can not swap the elements of these phrases).

The syntactically determined meanings of a word are realized only if it performs an unusual syntactic function in the sentence. Yes, the words log, oak, hat, acting as the nominal part of the compound predicate, they get the meanings " stupid man"; "stupid, stupid person"; "sluggish, uninitiated person, bungler". V. V. Vinogradov, who first singled out this type of values, called them functionally-syntactically conditioned. These meanings are always figurative and, according to the method of nomination, are among the figurative meanings.

As part of the syntactically conditioned meanings of the word, there are also meanings structurally limited, which are implemented only under the conditions of a certain syntactic construction. For example, the word vortex with a direct meaning "gusty circular motion of the wind" in a construction with a noun in the form of the genitive case gets a figurative meaning: whirlwind of events- "the rapid development of events."

4. By the nature of the functions performed lexical meanings are divided into two types: nominative, the purpose of which is the nomination, naming of phenomena, objects, their qualities, and expressive-synonymous, in which the emotional-evaluative (connotative) feature is predominant. For example, in the phrase tall man word high indicates great growth; this is its nominal value. And the words lanky, long combined with the word human, not only indicate a large growth, but also contain a negative, disapproving assessment of such growth. These words have an expressive-synonymous meaning and are among the expressive synonyms for a neutral word. high.

5. By the nature of the relationships of some values with others in the lexical system of the language are distinguished:

1) autonomous the meanings possessed by words that are relatively independent in the language system and designate mainly specific objects: table, theater, flower;

2) correlative meanings that are inherent in words that are opposed to each other on some grounds: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age,

3) deterministic meanings, ᴛ.ᴇ. such, ʼʼ which are, as it were, determined by the meanings of other words, since they represent their stylistic or expressive variants...ʼʼ. For example: nag(cf.
Hosted on ref.rf
stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse), wonderful, marvelous, wonderful (cf.
Hosted on ref.rf
good).

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, the modern typology of lexical meanings in its base has, firstly, the conceptual and subject relations of words (i.e. paradigmatic relations), and secondly, derivational (or derivational) connections of words, thirdly, the relationship of words to each other ( syntagmatic relations). The study of the typology of lexical meanings helps to understand the semantic structure of the word, to penetrate deeper into the systemic connections that have developed in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language.

MULTIPLE WORD

Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word" 2017, 2018.

Words have lexical and grammatical meanings. Lexical meanings are studied by lexicology, grammatical meanings are studied by grammar - morphology and syntax.

Lexical meaning words are a reflection in the word of one or another phenomenon of reality (object, event, quality, action, relationship, etc.).

Lexical meaning of the word individually: it is inherent in the given word and by this delimits the given word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.

On the other hand, grammatical meaning characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it is categorical .

An important sign of grammatical meaning, which distinguishes it from the meaning of the lexical one, is the obligation of the expression: we cannot use the word without expressing its grammatical meanings (with the help of endings, prepositions, etc.). So, speaking the word table, we not only name a certain object, but also express such features of this noun as gender (masculine), number (singular), case (nominative or accusative, cf .: There was a table in the corner. - I see a table). All these signs of form table the essence of its grammatical meanings, expressed by the so-called zero inflection.

Pronouncing the word form table (for example, in a sentence Blocked the passage with a table), we use the ending -om to express grammatical meanings instrumental case (cf. endings used to express case meanings: table-a, table-y, table-e), masculine (cf. the ending that feminine nouns have in the instrumental case: water-oh), singular (cf. table-ami). The lexical meaning the words table- "a piece of home furniture, which is a surface of hard material, mounted on one or more legs, and serving to put or put something on it" - in all case forms of this word remains unchanged. In addition to the root table-, which has the indicated lexical meaning, there are no other means of expressing this meaning, similar to the means of expressing the grammatical meanings of case, gender, number, etc.

TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANINGS OF WORDS IN THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

Comparison of various words and their meanings makes it possible to single out several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.

1. By way of nomination direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished.

direct(or the main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality.

For example, words table, black, boil have the following main meanings:

1. "A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs."

2. "Colors of soot, coal."

3. "Bubbling, bubbling, evaporating from strong heat" (about liquids).

These values are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language it meant "throne", "reign", "capital".

The direct meanings of words less than all others depend on context, on the nature of connections with other words. Therefore, direct meanings are said to have the greatest paradigmatic conditionality and the least syntagmatic coherence.

portable(indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.

Yes, the word table has several figurative meanings:

1. "Item of special equipment or part of a machine of similar shape": operating table, raise machine table.

2. "Food, food": rent a room with a table.

3. "A department in an institution in charge of some special range of affairs": information desk.

At the word black such portable values:

1. "Dark, as opposed to something lighter, called white": blackbread.

2. "Taking a dark color, darkened": blackfrom sunburn.

3. "Kurnoy" (only full form, obsolete): blackhut.

4. "Gloomy, bleak, heavy": blackthoughts.

5. "Criminal, malicious": blacktreason.

6. "Not the main, auxiliary" (only the full form): blackmove in the house.

7. "Physically heavy and unskilled" (long form only): blackWork etc.

Word boil has the following metaphors:

1. "To manifest in a strong degree": work is in full swing.

2. "To manifest something with force, to a strong extent": boilindignation.

As you can see, indirect meanings appear in words that are not directly related to the concept, but approach it through various associations that are obvious to speakers.

In terms of reproducibility and stability, figurative meanings differ from metaphors that are created by writers, poets, publicists and are of an individual nature.

However, in most cases, when transferring meanings, imagery is lost. For example, we do not perceive as figurative such names as pipe elbow, teapot spout, clock and under. In such cases, they speak of extinct figurativeness in the lexical meaning of the word, dry metaphors.

Direct and figurative meanings are distinguished within one word.

2. According to the degree of semantic motivation values are highlighted unmotivated(non-derivative, primary), which are not determined by the meaning of morphemes in the composition of the word, and motivated(derivatives, secondary), which are derived from the meanings of the generating stem and derivational affixes. For example, words table, build, white have unmotivated meanings. Words canteen, desktop, canteen, completion, perestroika, anti-perestroika, whiten, whiten, whiteness motivated meanings are inherent, they are, as it were, “produced” from the motivating part, word-building formants and semantic components that help to comprehend the meaning of a word with a derivative stem.

For some words, the motivation of the meaning is somewhat obscured, since in modern Russian it is not always possible to single out their historical root. However, etymological analysis establishes the ancient family ties of the word with other words, makes it possible to explain the origin of its meaning. For example, etymological analysis allows you to highlight the historical roots in the words fat, feast, window, cloth, pillow, cloud and establish their connection with words live, drink, eye, twist, ear, drag(envelop). Thus, the degree of motivation of one or another meaning of the word may not be the same. In addition, the meaning may seem motivated to a person with a philological background, while the semantic connections of this word seem lost to a non-specialist.

3. Possibly lexical compatibility the meanings of words are divided into free and non-free. The first are based only on the subject-logical connections of words. For example, the word drink combined with words denoting liquids ( water, milk, tea, lemonade etc.), but cannot be combined with words such as stone, beauty, running, night. The compatibility of words is regulated by the subject compatibility (or incompatibility) of the concepts they denote. Thus, the "freedom" of the compatibility of words with unrelated meanings is relative.

Non-free meanings, in turn, are divided into phraseologically related and syntactically conditioned. The former are realized only in stable (phraseological) combinations: sworn enemy, bosom friend(you can not swap the elements of these phrases).

Syntactically conditional values words are realized only if it performs a syntactic function unusual for itself in a sentence. Yes, the words log, oak, hat, acting as the nominal part of the compound predicate, they get the meanings " stupid man"; "stupid, stupid person"; "sluggish, uninitiated person, bungler". V. V. Vinogradov, who first singled out this type of values, called them functionally-syntactically conditioned. These meanings are always figurative and, according to the method of nomination, are among the figurative meanings.

5. By the nature of the relationships of some values with others in the lexical system of the language can be distinguished:

1) autonomous the meanings possessed by words that are relatively independent in the language system and designate mainly specific objects: table, theater, flower;

2) correlative meanings that are inherent in words that are opposed to each other on some grounds: close - far, good - bad, youth - old age,

3) deterministic values, i.e. such, "which are, as it were, determined by the meanings of other words, since they represent their stylistic or expressive variants ...". For example: nag(cf. stylistically neutral synonyms: horse, horse), beautiful, wonderful, magnificent (cf. good).

In this way, the modern typology of lexical meanings is based, firstly, on the conceptual and subject relations of words (i.e. paradigmatic relations), and secondly, derivational (or derivational) connections of words, thirdly, the relationship of words to each other ( syntagmatic relations). The study of the typology of lexical meanings helps to understand the semantic structure of the word, to penetrate deeper into the systemic connections that have developed in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language.

Grammatical meaning is the abstract linguistic content of a grammatical unit that has a regular (standard) expression in the language (for example, the grammatical meaning of words new, old is the general categorical meaning of the feature, as well as particular grammatical meanings - gender, number and case: all these meanings have a standard expression in the language in the affix morpheme th; in English, the grammatical meaning of the plural is regularly expressed using the suffix ~(e)s: book-s, student-s, horses-es). The grammatical meaning differs from the lexical one by a higher level of abstraction, because “this is an abstraction of features and relationships” (A.A. Reformatsky). The grammatical meaning is not individual, since it belongs to a whole class of words, united by a common morphological properties and syntactic functions. Some particular grammatical meanings can change in a word in its different grammatical forms (cf. changing the meaning of number and case in nouns or tense in verb forms, while the lexical meaning of the word remains unchanged). At the same time, the possibility of changing the grammatical meaning of a word is limited by the very set of grammatical meanings of a particular part of speech, the “closedness” of their list in each language, while the list of lexical meanings is open, since the lexical system of any language is open, which means that it can be replenished with new words and, accordingly, new meanings. In contrast to the lexical meaning, the grammatical meaning is not called the word directly, directly, but is expressed in it “in passing”, in a strictly defined way, with the help of grammatical means (affixes) specially assigned to it. It, as it were, accompanies the lexical meaning of the word, being its additional meaning.

The abstracted linguistic content, expressed by grammatical meaning, has a different degree of abstraction, i.e. by its nature, grammatical meaning is heterogeneous: it can be more abstract or less abstract (cf. in the word was reading the most abstract is the meaning of the process: it is inherent in all verbs and all its forms; it is followed by the meaning of the past tense: it is inherent in all verbs in the form of the past tense; the meaning of the masculine gender is more definite and narrow: it is inherent only in the forms of the verb that are opposed to the feminine and neuter forms and combined with the pronoun he). Depending on the nature of the grammatical meaning, i.e. whether it is inherent in the word (for example, the meaning of objectivity in a noun) or whether it is realized in a word form in a certain context as part of a phrase or sentence (for example, the meaning of number and case in a noun), non-syntactic or referential grammatical meanings that are internally inherent in the word (for example, the meaning of the gender of nouns), and syntactic or relational grammatical meanings indicating the relationship of the word (or rather the word form) to other words in a phrase or sentence (for example, the meaning of the gender, number, case of an adjective). Finally, depending on the correlation of the grammatical meaning with the nature of the displayed objects, they distinguish between objective or dictal grammatical meanings that convey objective, subject-independent features and relationships (cf. the grammatical meanings of a feature for adjectives, tense and aspect for a verb) and modal, reflecting the attitude of the speaker to what he is talking about or to whom he is talking (cf. grammatical meanings of subjective evaluation, mood, etc.).

The grammatical meaning of a word is derived from its relation to other units of the same class (for example, the grammatical meaning of the past tense form of the verb carried derived by relating it to other temporary forms -- bears, will bear).

The grammatical meaning of a word often includes its derivational meaning (if the word is derivative), since word formation is part of the grammatical structure of the language. Derivative meaning is a generalized meaning inherent only in motivated words, expressed by word-formation means. It represents a certain semantic relationship between the members of a derivational pair - generating and derived words. Like grammatical meaning, it is not individual, but characterizes entire classes of words belonging to the same word-formation type, i.e. built according to one typed model (which means that all these words belong to the same part of speech, are formed by the same way of word formation, using the same affix from the stem belonging to the same part of speech, and they all have the same derivational meaning, cf., for example, the derivational type "a person performing an action called a motivating word": teacher, writer, builder, investigator etc.). The word-formation meaning has a different degree of abstractness (cf. the different degree of abstractness of the following word-formation meanings: "immaturity" in words that name animal babies: kitten, wolf cub or "shortness of action" in verbs cry, cry). At the same time, word-building meanings are more abstract than lexical ones, but more specific than grammatical ones (compare, for example, the word-building meaning of "diminutiveness" and the grammatical meaning of "animation").

Since the semantic relations between the generating and derived word can develop in different ways, there are several semantic types of word-formation meaning: mutation, in which the meaning of the derived word is derived from the meaning of the generating, i.e. the derived word acts as a carrier of a feature called producing (cf. the subject-characterizing derivational meaning "carrier of an attributive feature" in the word sage), At the same time, the part-of-speech attribution of the derived word may or may not coincide with the generating one (cf. bread--bakery, read--reader)", transpositional type, in which the meaning of the derived word completely preserves the grammatical semantics of the generating word, although it is transferred to another part-class (cf. the meaning of the objectified action in the word walking or the meaning of an abstract feature in a word wisdom) and the modification type, in which the meaning of the derived word, which receives an additional semantic component, is only modified, since the meaning of the generating word is completely included in the semantic volume of the derivative, the part belonging to which does not change (cf. the meaning of collectiveness in the word crow or singularity in a word pea).

The material expression of the grammatical meaning of a word in the broadest sense is its grammatical form. In the narrow sense of the word, a grammatical form is understood as one of the regular modifications of a word (for example, any form of a word in its declension or conjugation). Grammatical meaning and grammatical form are inseparable from each other, they are two sides of a linguistic sign. However, the relationship between them is not unambiguous: the same grammatical form can convey several grammatical meanings (for example, the word form brother contains the meanings of objectivity, masculine gender, singular, instrumental case, animation, concreteness) and vice versa, the same grammatical meaning can be conveyed by several grammatical forms (cf. the meaning of plurality contained in the words leaves and foliage, which is transmitted by different grammatical forms, or the meaning of diminutiveness and endearment, transmitted by different suffixes: -ik: house, -ok: town, -ochek: son and etc.). The set of grammatical forms of one word is called a paradigm (cf. im.p. house, genus.p. at home, dt.p. home etc.). A word may have a complete paradigm, i.e. including all possible grammatical forms in a given language that are inherent in this part of speech (for example, inflected nouns of the Russian language such as table, country, village have a complete paradigm of twelve grammatical forms), an incomplete or defective paradigm in which some grammatical forms are missing (for example, in verbs like win, convince no form 1 l. singular) and a paradigm that abounds in which there are redundant grammatical forms (cf., for example, the paradigms of the verbs drip: dripping and caplet or move: moves and moves).

Despite the fact that the grammatical meaning is, as it were, a secondary meaning of the word, it plays an essential role in creating the integral meaning of the sentence (cf. I put a gift for a friend... and I gave a gift to a friend..., changing the grammatical meaning of a case in a word friend leads to a change in the meaning of the sentence). A vivid illustration of this provision can serve as a proposal drawn up by JI.B. Shcherboy of meaningless, but grammatically correct and interconnected words that convey a certain grammatical meaning and even form some sense of the sentence: The glistening kuzdra shteko has bobbed up the beak and curls the beak. Each word in it contains morphemes, the meaning of which is easily deduced from the relationship of words to each other (cf. the feminine meaning, which is conveyed by inflections -aya (gloky),-a ( Kuzdra and budlanula), the meaning of time -- past -- suf.-l ( budlanula) and present - flexia -it ( curls), the meaning of immaturity -- suf.-onok (bokrenka), the meaning of animation is inflection -a ( bokra and beakrenka), the meaning of a one-time action is suf. -well ( budlanula) and etc.).

Grammatical and lexical meanings: gradation and transitions

Grammatical and lexical meanings are the main types of the plan for the content of language units. These are some kind of poles in the semantic space of the language. At the same time, there is no insurmountable abyss between them. In a word, they act as a unity, and for some categories of words they are simply inseparable. For example, about the semantics of pronouns, it can be argued that it has an intermediate, transitional character between vocabulary and grammar.

On the opposition of lexical and grammatical meanings, the functional classification of word elements is based - morphemes. However, the division into roots, prefixes, suffixes, inflections, etc. requires a more detailed differentiation of meanings. In particular, grammatical meanings are divided into proper grammatical (inflectional) and lexico-grammatical (classification). The former form a semantic characteristic of the form of a word, the latter characterize the whole word as a whole, as its permanent feature (i.e., they attribute the lexeme to a certain grammatical class). An example of the former may be in the Slavic languages the person of the verb, the case of a noun, or the degree of comparison of an adjective; an example of the second is the aspect of a verb, the gender of a noun, or the quality of an adjective. However, both meanings are transmitted through grammatical morphemes, sometimes even simultaneously, in a complex (such, for example, is inflection -a in the word winter).

Intermediate between grammatical and lexical meanings are derivational meanings. These meanings are inherent in entire groups of lexemes and, moreover, have their own formal (intra-word) expression. In principle, derivational and, for example, inflectional meanings can again be expressed by the same morpheme (Russian -oy in gold, capital letters, etc.).

The listed types of meanings, which line up according to the degree of their abstractness and the breadth of coverage of the vocabulary in “inflectional - classificatory - derivational - lexical”, in a particular case form a unity. For example, the Polish form przerabiasz "remake*" contains the following heterogeneous meanings: lexical (to make), derivational (repetition, repetition), classificatory (imperfect, transitive), inflectional (2nd person, singular, present tense).

The relativity of the opposition of lexical and grammatical meanings is also evidenced by such a characteristic manifestation of linguistic evolution as grammaticalization. This is a process in which the meaning of some linguistic element, word or morpheme, changes its status: from lexical it becomes grammatical. There is nothing surprising in the fact that such an element becomes a regular means of expressing a grammatical category. In particular, synthetic, or simple, verb forms of the future tense in modern Ukrainian go back to the combination of the infinitive with the verb (i) mati "to have": the pisatimu "I will write" arose from pisati + imu; pisatimesh "you will write" -- from pisati+imesh; write "he will write" - from write + name, etc. And in similar forms of the Serbo-Croatian language, the verb hteti "want" that has lost its original meaning is included as an indicator of the future tense: ja fly write (or simply nucahy) "I will write ", you write (or write) "you will write", he writes (or nucahe) "he will write"...

On the other hand, some grammatical meaning may, over time, losing its obligatory nature and narrowing the scope of its application, turn into a lexical one. An example has already been given above with a dual number: now in most Slavic languages this meaning has become lexical. In the course of language development, one or another form of a word can turn into a separate, independent word - this process is called lexicalization. An illustration of such a phenomenon in Russian can be the formation of adverbs such as winter, around, groping, below, etc. If we consider a separate grammatical morpheme, then here it is not difficult to find examples of how a morpheme changes its status, gaining the rights of a root. So, in a number of modern European languages, the suffix of Greek-Latin origin -ismus gave a root with the meaning "social trend, direction" (compare the Russian expression "different isms", etc.). Another, no less famous example. The modern English root bus "bus", which arose as a result of the contraction of the word omnibus, goes back to the inflection - (оbus in the Latin pronominal form: omnis "every" -- omnibus literally "for everyone".

In general, despite all the borderline and transitional cases, lexical and grammatical meanings retain their global opposition in the language system.

The word as a unit of language

Lexicology is a branch of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of a language, or vocabulary. In lexicology, the word is studied as an individual unit, as well as the place of the word in the lexical system of the modern Russian literary language.

Word- the main nominative and cognitive (cognitive) unit of the language, which serves to name objects, processes, properties and report on them. It belongs to the lexico-semantic level of the language and consists of units of lower levels: phonemes and morphemes.

One of the most important functions of the word is the nominative (naming) function. It is known that every newly appearing object, every new discovery receives a name (name).

The naming function in the language is carried out significant parts of speech: noun, adjective, numeral, verb, adverb.

By its linguistic nature, the word is a complex, multidimensional, diverse unit of language. The following main features of the word are noted:

1) Phonetic design, i.e. a word is a sound complex built according to the laws of the phonetic structure of a given language.

2) The presence of a word meaning, which is assigned to it in the minds of all speakers of this language.

3) Separateness and impenetrability of the word, i.e. the impossibility of additional insertions inside the word without changing its meaning.

4) Reproducibility, i.e. words are not created in the process of communication, but are extracted from the language memory of native speakers.

5) Isolability, i.e. the word can be isolated from speech, context.

6) Non-double impact, i.e. the word has one main emphasis - students.

7) Relevance to a certain part of speech.

Lexical and grammatical meaning of the word

The word is a two-way language unit ( sign), which has a shape, i.e. sound or graphic shell and meaning - a specific linguistic reflection of reality. For example, the sequence of letters wood becomes a sign (word) by virtue of having a meaning.

However, not every complex of sounds (letters) will be a word. N .: And I came up with a word, a simple word - plim..He jumps and jumps. Plym, plym, plym. And it doesn't mean anything. Plim, plim, plim(I. Tokmakova). This set of sounds, although designed according to the laws of the language. does not matter, therefore does not become a word (sign).

The study of the ability of certain sound complexes that form words to express certain meanings lexical semantics- the science of the meaning of a word

Lexical meaning words - this is its "real" meaning, it is the correlation of the sound shell of the word with a certain object or phenomenon of reality with a common public understanding of this correlation.

Lexical meaning of the word individually: it is inherent in a given word and by this delimits this word from others, each of which has its own, also individual meaning.

Along with the lexical meaning, the word has a grammatical meaning. The grammatical meaning of the word is a characteristic of it as an element of a certain grammatical class ( table - noun m.r..). Grammatical meaning characterizes entire categories and classes of words; it categorically.

Compare words table, house, knife. Each of them has its own lexical meaning. At the same time, they are characterized by common, the same grammatical meanings: they all belong to the same part of speech - noun, to the same grammatical gender - husband. and have the same number - unique.

An important feature of grammatical meaning that distinguishes it from lexical meaning is mandatory expression: we cannot use a word without expressing its grammatical meanings. So, speaking the word book, we not only name a certain object, but also express such features of this noun as gender (g.), number (sing.), case (i.).

Lexical value types

Comparison of various words and their meanings makes it possible to single out several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.

1. By way of nomination, i.e. the nature of the connection between the meaning of a word and the object of objective reality, two types of lexical meanings are distinguished: direct and indirect(portable).

Direct the meaning of the word is called, which directly indicates the object, feature, process, etc. and acts as its main nomination in the modern period of language development. portable such a value is called, the appearance of which is due to functional-associative links that unite one object, feature, process with another: bear: 1. ‘animal’; 2. ‘clumsy person’.

II. According to the degree of semantic motivation two types of word meanings are distinguished: unmotivated (non-derivative, primary) and motivated (derivative, secondary).

unmotivated the meaning is called, which is genetically non-derivative for the modern Russian language N.: road, donkey1- 'pack animal'.

Motivated a meaning is called, which is derivative in a semantic or word-formation relation. N.: donkey2– ‘stupid stubborn’ (a person is compared with a donkey on such grounds as stupidity and stubbornness), roadside– ‘growing by the road’.

III. Possibly lexical compatibility free and non-free values are distinguished.

free is called such a meaning of the word, which has a relatively wide syntagmatics (compatibility). The connections between words in this case are determined by the real connections of the phenomena of reality. N.: noun. bread has a wide range of compatibility: fresh, rye, stale, … But the freedom of compatibility is relative, it is limited by the semantic relations of words: combinations of the type wooden, smart, stupid bread.

not free is the meaning of words, the compatibility of which is limited by semantic and extralinguistic factors. Among the lexically non-free, three groups of word meanings are distinguished: phraseologically related, syntactically limited and constructively conditioned.

Phraseologically related the meaning of a word is called, which is realized in combination with a certain and at the same time limited range of words. N.: adj. buckwheat only goes with words horse, stallion, horse (it is forbidden buckwheat or bus).

Phraseologically related meanings of words existing(trifle, trifle, nonsense, true); downcast (look, eyes, sight), gape (mouth, mouth).

Syntactically delimited such a figurative meaning of a word is called, which is realized by this word only in a certain syntactic position: the position of a predicate, an appeal, or definitions of various types. N.: hat(about a sluggish, lack of initiative person, a muddler): He is a real hat; Hat! Wherever you go, He, the hat, will not cope with anything.

Similar syntactic restrictions apply to the figurative use (in relation to a person) of words donkey, bear, elephant, snake, oak.

Structurally determined the meaning of a word is called, which is expressed only in a certain construction. Yes, the verb cry expresses its meaning only in combination with a prepositional case combination on + noun in V.p.: cry at fate, respond for what(upon request).

IV. By the nature of the functions performed two types of lexical meanings can be distinguished: proper nominative and expressive-synonymous.

Nominative- such meanings of words that are used primarily to name objects, phenomena, qualities. In the semantic structure of words with a similar meaning, additional features (for example, evaluative ones) are not reflected. The meaning of the words will be nominative eyes, move, horse, payback and a lot others. Each of them is directly correlated with the concept, names it.

Expressive-synonymous is called such a value in which the main is connotative, or emotional-evaluative sign. Words with this meaning arose as additional expressive-emotional names of nominations already existing in the language with a denotative meaning. For example, each of the above words can be replaced by a word that has an expressive-synonymous meaning: eyes - zenki, move - trail, horse - nag, retribution - retribution.

Words with such meanings exist independently in the language and are reflected in dictionaries, but are perceived in the minds of native speakers by association with their nominative synonyms.

Polysemy of a word

Words in a language can have not one, but two or more meanings. The ability of a word to have more than one meaning is called ambiguity, or polysemy. The “lower limit” of polysemy is uniqueness (monosemy), which is characterized by the fact that the word has only one meaning: birch, tram.

At the moment of occurrence, the word is always unambiguous. The new meaning is the result of the figurative use of the word, when the name of one phenomenon is used as the name of another. The following types of portable values are distinguished: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche.

Metaphor- this is the transfer of the name by similarity, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which is based on similarity.

The similarities between objects are very diverse. Items may look like:

a) form: arches of eyebrows, a head of cheese, a pot-bellied teapot;

b ) location: comet tail, trains, building wing;

in) size: a mountain of things, a stream of tears, a cloud of mosquitoes;

G) color: copper hair, coral lips, chocolate tan;

e) degree of density, permeability: iron muscles, rain wall;

e) degree of mobility, re promotions: whirligig, dragonfly (about a mobile child)

and) sound: rain drumming, screeching saws;

h) degree of value: golden words, the highlight of the program.

Metaphors are general language when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely and is known to all speakers of a given language (nail head, river arm) and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic manner:

For example, the metaphors of S.A. Yesenin: red rowan bonfire, chintz of the sky, ripe star.

Metonymy- this is the transfer of the name of one object to others on the basis of the adjacency of these objects.

Metonymy is the result of semantic shifts in the language system. It can arise as a result of transfers based on various relationships:

a) material - product (mining gold - gold in the ears)

b) vessel - the contents of the vessel (drank a glass)

c) room - people (the audience listened carefully)

d) action - scene of action (street crossing - pedestrian crossing)

e) plant - fruit (pear, cherry)

f) animal - fur (fox)

Synecdoche- the use of the name of some part of an object instead of the whole and vice versa (Synecdoche is a kind of metonymic shifts). For example: face, mouth, head, hand represent the corresponding parts of the human body. But each of them can be used for the name of a person: Caucasian face. There are 5 mouths in the family. Lena is a bright head.

Synecdoche can be expressed in the use of a singular noun to denote a set, a multitude: The student (=students) is the wrong one today.

Some characteristic features of a person - a beard, glasses, clothes are often used to refer to a person, to refer to him (in colloquial speech): I stand for blue cloak(=behind the man in the blue cloak).

Homonyms

Homonyms are words that have the same sound and spelling, but different meanings: marriage(marriage) - marriage(defect), p ys(animal) - lynx(horse running).

The largest and most diverse group is lexical (absolute) homonyms: rook(boat) - rook(chess piece). In lexicology, there are two types of lexical homonyms - full and incomplete(partial).

To complete Lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, in which the whole system of forms coincides: key(door) - key(spring)

To incomplete Lexical homonyms include words of the same part of speech, which do not have the same system of forms: factory (company) - factory(mechanism) - does not have plural forms.

From lexical homonyms, full and partial, other types of homonymy should be distinguished: phonetic, graphic, morphological.

1. Phonetic (sound) homonymy- matching words in sound: onion - meadow, mushroom - flu. Phonetic homonyms are called homophones.

2. Graphic homonymy- the coincidence of words only in spelling, but sounding differently: roast(dish) and roast(summer); flour is flour. T what words are called homographs.

3. Morphological homonymy- the coincidence of words belonging to both one and different parts of speech, in one or more forms: ate(Ch. form is) and ate(plural noun spruce); three(num.) and three(command. obl. verb. to rub). Such words are called homoforms.

Homonymy must be distinguished from polysemy (polysemy). With ambiguity, different meanings of one word retain an internal connection with the main meaning. For example, the word build may mean:

1) build (build a house); 2) draw up (make plans);

3) draw (build a triangle); 4) put in ranks (build squads).

All these meanings have not lost their connection with the main general ‘create, construct’, i.e. the word retains polysemanticity.

With homonymy, the connection between the meanings of the word is lost: beam(log) and beam(ravine); braid(hair) and braid(strip of sushi).

One of the ways to distinguish between polysemy and homonymy can be word compatibility. For example: shaft 1 ( embankment), wal 2 (wave).

1. urban, rampart; pour, strengthen the shaft.

2. high, foaming, ninth, rolling, running. The word shaft 1 and shaft 2 have different compatibility, therefore, these are homonyms.

battle 1 - sea, deadly, long; fight;

fight 2 - fisticuff, deadly, long; fight;

fight 3 - fist, deadly, long; fight

The words fight 1, fight 2, fight 3 have similar compatibility, therefore, these are polysemantic words.

Lexical homonyms arise as a result of various processes occurring in the language.

1) as a result of the coincidence in form of the original word and the borrowed word:

club(smoke) - primordial, related to the words swirl, ball;

club(institution) - borrowed from English;

marriage(matrimony) - primordial, akin to the verb to take;

marriage(defect) - borrowed from German.

2) as a result of the coincidence in the form of words borrowed from different sources or from one, but in different meanings: tap(tap) - from Dutch - tap(construction) - from German; note(musical) and note(diplomatic document) - from Latin.

3) as a result of the collapse of polysemy and the separation of the word from its original meaning: garden(fruity) and garden(children's) - go back to a common source - the verb plant. These words diverged in meaning and became homonyms in modern Russian.

4) as a result of phonetic processes occurring in the language, or changes in the spelling of the word: never(once) and once(no time) - originally distinguished by sounds Ђ and e, which later coincided in one sound e.

5) as a result of word-formation processes, in particular, by attaching affixes with different meanings to the same stem

to cover (to cover again) - to block (to block)

Paronyms

Paronyms These are words that are similar in sound and structure, but have different meanings. Usually paronyms are words formed from the same root with the help of different affixes. For example: diplomat - dimlomancer- noun common root diploma, differ in suffixes -at and -ant.

Diplomat- An official in the diplomatic service.

Diploma student- a person awarded an award - a diploma - or writing a diploma.

In speech, paronyms are sometimes mixed, although they mean different things. For example: they say “put on a coat” instead of “put on a coat”. Verbs dress and put on differ in meaning: put on (what) - dress (whom)

Paronyms are distinguished by those synonymous correspondences that each of the members of the paronymic pair (series) has. For example:

Synonyms

Synonyms- words different in sound, but semantically identical, denoting the same concept and differing in the scope of use, shades of meaning, stylistic or emotional coloring. Synonyms belong to the same lexico-grammatical category of words (parts of speech).

For example: synonyms elk, elk, elk- identical in meaning, but belong to different lexical layers: elk- literary word; elk- colloquial; sohach- dialect. Usually several words enter into synonymous relations. They form synonymous series. The word that most fully expresses the meaning common to the words of the synonymous series is called dominant(lat. djminans - “dominant”). Dominant is a word stylistically neutral, commonly used, all other members of the synonymic series are often words with additional semantic and stylistic shades of meaning. So, in a synonymic row red, scarlet, crimson adjective will be dominant red. The dominant head of the synonymic series and is given in dictionaries at its beginning.

Depending on the functions, there are semantic and stylistic synonyms.

Semantic or ideographic synonyms differ from each other by elements of lexical meaning: red- ‘colors of blood’; scarlet- ‘bright red’, scarlet- 'dark red'.

Stylistic synonyms differ from each other in expressive-stylistic load and are used in different styles of speech. In a synonymic row: face - face - muzzle - physiognomy - mug word face- the word is stylistically neutral; face(high, book style); muzzle - physiognomy - mug- spacious.

Synonyms arise as a result of various processes occurring in the language.

1. As a result of “splitting” one lexical meaning into two or more. For example, the verb be reforged acquired a figurative meaning ‘to change one’s way of thinking and behavior as a result of upbringing’ and became close in meaning to such verbs as re-educate, transform.

2. As a result of borrowing foreign words: coast - coast, hail - city. cruise - travel, and hobby - enthusiasm.

3. Due to the use of dialectal, professional words next to literary ones: hut-hut, haymaking-kosovitsa.

4. As a result of word-formation processes in the language: digging - digging, piloting - aerobatics

5. As a result of the attachment of a negative particle not to one of the members of the antonymic pair: low - (high) low, rarely - (often) infrequently, enemy - (friend) foe.

ANTONYMS

Antonyms - These are words that belong to the same part of speech and have opposite meanings: young - old, stupid - smart, meet - see off, over - under.

In its own way structure antonyms are divided into three groups:

1. Different root antonyms: good - evil, long - short;

2. One-root antonyms: faith - unbelief, sunrise - sunset, deed - idleness;

3. Intra-word antonyms are such pairs that are obtained as a result of the development of the meaning of a word to the complete opposite (a process called enantiosemy). N.: borrow(to lend) - (to borrow), maybe(probably) - (probably) ): I will probably come. They probably told me that the commission will arrive soon. Priceless(having a high price).

Antonyms are one of the expressive means of the language. They have long been used in CNT, for example, in proverbs: Sweet lies are better than bitter truths; An angel in people, but a devil at home; The poor do not understand the rich; Learning is light and ignorance is darkness.

Antonyms are also widely used in journalism, especially in headlines: Friends and enemies of tourism; Luck and bad luck eminent.

Antonyms can serve as a means of creating oxymoron- a figure of speech, which is a combination of two opposite concepts (two words that contradict each other in meaning): bitter joy, ringing silence, sweet pain, a living corpse, adult children.

Usually an oxymoron is created according to the “adjective + noun” model, however, there are other models: “adverb + verb”: Oh, how happy she is to be sad. So elegantly naked (Ahm.).

Antonymy is used in fiction to express antitheses- a figure of speech in which opposite concepts are contrasted to enhance expressiveness: I will not better or worse, All that I will not different, From happiness blaze on the colder, From grief to cool in summer heat(N. Gribachev). Rebelled and old and young (P.); I stupid, and you smart, alive and I dumbfounded (Color).

In an ironic context, one antonym can be used instead of another: Where, clever, you're delirious head. The use of a word in the opposite sense is called antiphrasis. Antiphrasis is often resorted to in everyday colloquial speech; so, to an absent-minded person they say jokingly: how careful you are! evil: how kind you are!

Antonyms are characterized by predominantly contact use in certain contexts. Intentional collision of antonyms makes it possible to realize their most important functions:

1) opposition: You are rich, I am very poor(P.);

2) mutual exclusion: He had only one opinion about people - good or bad.(Sim.);

3) alternation: He then extinguished the candle, then lit it(Ch.);

4) coverage of the entire class of objects, the entire phenomenon, action: From young to old, from morning to evening, and enemies and friends - everyone is tired.

Antonyms can be linguistic and contextual(individual). Unlike linguistic antonyms, the semantic opposition of which is manifested regularly and does not depend on the use (white - black, soft - hard), contextual antonyms - an occasional (random) phenomenon, limited by the scope of the context: Wolves and Sheep(N. Ostrovsky), Already and Falcon(M. Gorky), lodges - galleries(E. Evtushenko); daily work - nightly dream(M. Tsvetaeva). What is allowed to Jupiter is not allowed to the bull. Jupiter (god) and bull (livestock) are opposed in the Latin proverb as antonyms, although they are not.

Categories

Popular