Describe the ways of decorating (decorating) glass products. Glass goods Decoration rollers in glassware

WATERFORD makes not only vases and glasses from crystal, but also cutlery handles
The characteristic elongated transition from the stem to the bowl of the glass is a hallmark of VILLEROY BOCH crystal Matted pattern and thick crystal in the home collection from CHRISTOFLE SEGUSTO VIRO
Inter-glass gilding: on the island of Murano, very thin plates of gold are used, breaking up into a myriad of stars The matting technique (sanding) is also used by WATERFORD SEGUSTO VIRO
Mosaic glass is obtained by fusing colored pieces of glass.
FORMIA
Vases-"aquariums". First, the fish and the water landscape are made, and then they are melted into a transparent mold. IITTALA glass is fused from thin spiral filaments Humor is the main design feature from RITZENHOFF
IITTALA birds "hatch" every year and never repeat
KOSTA BODA loves to use Matisse-themed fantasies in their paintings.
SEGUSTO VIRO
Murano glass. In this case, the vases are decorated with fused strands of colored glass.
Straight lines do not interest LEONARDO, designers are fond of playing smooth curves
Icy glass KOSTA BODA. Nowadays, this manufacturing technique is becoming less and less common. FORMIA
Vases from FORMIA are fused from pieces of colored mass Fish - typical and most popular Murano glass motif
DEMAGLASS glasses are sold in sets of three and are united by one theme Since Art Deco, LALIQUE loves to depict animals Corporate style glasses from RITZENHOFF

Glass was invented in ancient Egypt, most likely by accident. The first mass of glass found by archaeologists dates back to the Bronze Age. Today, three main types of glass mass are used, more than five technologies for the production of products from it and about twenty exterior finishing techniques.

What is not made of glass! Do you remember the wonderful glasses and wine glasses from the Gus-Khrustalny plant, which until recently adorned all sideboards without exception? And Bohemian glass of gold, green and red color, the pride of any housewife! But glassmakers do not stop there, and our market is conquered by more and more foreign brands of glass and crystal. So how to understand their diversity? And what are these brands anyway? You may find the answer in this article.

Production technology

The glass familiar to our eyes is obtained by fusing quartz with oxides of various metals. The main component of the glass mass is silicon dioxide. It is obtained from quartz sand. Previously, lime or chalk was added to the glass mass, which made the glass resistant, thin and shiny. Now this technology is rarely used. The addition of potash or soda gives a clear and bright glass, due to its infusibility, it is suitable primarily for molding. Crystal was first obtained in the 17th century in England. To do this, lead was added to the glass mass. Crystal differs from ordinary glass in a stronger brilliance and a high refractive index of light, due to which it plays with all the colors of the rainbow. It is durable and can be cut.

To color (tint) the glass mass, metal oxides are added to it during melting. For example, iron will make a transparent material bluish-green or yellow, manganese - yellow or brown, chromium - grassy green, uranium - yellowish green (so-called uranium glass), cobalt - blue (cobalt glass), colloidal silver - yellow, copper - red. There are also such types of glass as bone and milk. The first is obtained by clouding the glass mass with burnt bone, the second is made with the addition of a mixture of feldspar and fluorspar. And if you stir up the glass mass to a very weak degree with the same spars, you get opal glass

.

The technology for making glass and crystal has not changed much over the centuries. The most ancient product - cast glass is produced, as before, using two forms, external and internal. The gap between them is filled with glass mass, and then the product is fired in a furnace.

Free blown glass was used in ancient Rome as early as 75-50 BC. e. The blow tube is dipped into the glass mass melted in the furnace. Then, removing the tube from the furnace, roll out the mass on a stone or metal surface, giving it a cylindrical shape. By rotating the product on the tube rod, the neck of the vessel is blown out. At the end of the process, the rod is beaten off, the chip is then polished.

Glass blowing into molds became widespread in the 18th and 19th centuries. According to this technology, the product is given preliminary outlines with the help of a tube, and then it is placed in a mold made of wood or iron, cooled and processed. Free-blown or mold-blown glass is easily recognizable by the trace of the tube.

Pressed glass was first made in the 1920s in America, from where it entered Europe. It was a fundamentally new way of processing glass mass, in which it was poured into a copper or iron mold and pressed using a blank. This technique, with some individual additions and improvements, was used by René Lalique and Galen.

Types of glassware finishes

There are many techniques for interior and exterior decoration of glass objects. Let's dwell on the most interesting and spectacular.

The "glass yarn" technique: a glass thread of a different color or other transparency is wound onto a previously prepared glass mold. Patterns from this thread can be different and form a grid (Reticell glass), combed threads (feather effect) or opal spirals (filigree). On the island of Murano in Venice, another modification of this technique was developed - millefiori ("thousand flowers"). Small glass plates or tubes are melted into the glass surface, forming flowers (hence the name). At the same time, transparent bubbles are blown into the material using thin hollow needles (like a syringe), and transparent sparkling threads are formed by air pumped into the glass mass in a special way.

Icy glass (crackled, or crackle) is obtained by immersing the workpiece in cold water, which causes a network of random cracks (craquelure) to form on the surface. The glass is then reheated and blown.

The creation of laminated glass requires a very experienced craftsman. The blown workpiece is either dipped alternately into several multi-colored glass masses, or covered with colored layers from the inside. Then the layers are sanded, etched or made openwork, like a cameo.

Mosaic glass: A mold is filled with small pieces of colored glass. Then the form is placed in the oven, and the pieces are fused.

The most common type of exterior decoration of glassware is painting. It can be produced cold (opaque paints are applied to the surface without subsequent firing) and enamel with firing (stained glass enamel forms a transparent layer on the surface of the product, contrasting with the main background).

The glaze is made using only two metals - silver (it gives a yellow glaze) and copper (it turns out a black or red glaze).

The iridescence technique gives the glass a mother-of-pearl radiance. The color ranges from white transparent to red-gold. The famous art glasses TIFFANY are made in this technique.

Gold is one of the most popular means of decorating dishes. A thin foil can be melted between layers of glass (inter-glass gilding, popular in Bohemia) or cover it from the outside. It is also possible to paint the surface with gold oxide (this is cheaper than foil, therefore it is especially popular).

Etching or satin finish (this technology is used to process LALIQUE crystal) began to be used in 1771 with the discovery of hydrofluoric acid. This acid itself makes the glass shiny, and its gases - dull. You can etch the entire surface completely (while it remains smooth and silky) or selectively (only the pattern).

The whole surface or only the pattern can be processed with a jet of sharp-grained sand - matting technique. It turns out the same effect as when etching with acid, but the plane becomes rough, coarse-grained.

Crystal can be engraved and cut. Engraving is applied to the surface with a diamond. The patterns are obtained as if scratched and shallow. Conventional cutting is performed using sharp diamond cutters and special grinding wheels. This gives a pattern deeply embedded in the surface. Brilliant cut: rhombus-pyramids stand out on the plane.

Grinding is used to create round and olive-shaped depressions in the surface. The technique of fusing glass threads, droplets or circles of transparent and colored glass makes a flat plane textured.

So, we got acquainted with how and from what glass is made and how it can be decorated. Now it's time to get acquainted with the products of modern glassblowers. Of course, there are a lot of companies producing glass and crystal tableware, it is impossible to tell about all of them in one short article. So we limit ourselves to only the most famous foreign designer brands.

One and all

Let's start the review with what is available to everyone - with mass production. The technology of its production is maximally mechanized, but even here it is impossible to do without manual labor. Sketches of form and decor are carried out by designers. Further, the products are made according to a stencil or template, which makes them relatively cheap, while not depriving them of aesthetic value.

The first brand to pay attention to is IITTALA (Finland). IITTALA glass is made using a special technology, with the addition of lime. The dishes are transparent, thin, but very resistant and not subject to mechanical damage. It tolerates washing in the dishwasher very well.

Finnish design is appreciated all over the world and IITTALA is a typical representative of this country. Minimalism, the style of the 1950s-1970s have become the hallmarks of the IITTALA brand. Her collections include items of "classic" design, developed in the 1950s and 1970s. But the range of products of modern designers is replenished poorly. Artists from Finland, Sweden, Germany work for this manufacturer. Glasses, decanters, vases, candlesticks are characterized by simplicity and conciseness of forms and minimalist decor. There are no drawings, the products are plain colorless or muted shades of gray, white, black, brown, blue, green, red. Prices range from $5 (small glasses) to $100 (large decanters and vases). If you want to make a gift, you can use the IITTALA Pro Arte collections, which include vases, plates, sculpture, original plastic, handmade using mosaic, laminated, ice glass and decorated with "glass yarn", glaze and glass overlays. These items are somewhat more expensive, but still affordable - from $ 50 (vase).

DEMAGLASS and CHURCHILL (Great Britain) are kindred spirits: they are designed to help turn an ordinary meal into a pleasant one without spending too much money. In the DEMAGLASS collections, you should pay attention to the glasses, which are sold in convenient packages of three. Cocktail glasses from the latest collection are decorated with a ruler to measure the amount of ingredients needed. There is also fashionable Japan - bamboo thickets, hieroglyphs, dragonflies. DEMAGLASS works with both clear and sanded glass.

CHURCHILL glass - mostly frosted, with a stenciled floral design. We offer both single flowers and whole flower fields or bouquets - from gerbera to chamomile, from rose to violet. It is very easy to pick up a whole set of dishes in the same style (glasses of different sizes, decanters, bottles, etc.). Decor options for glasses and decanters change every year. The prices for products of these two brands are approximately the same: 3 glasses - from $ 20.

Utilitarian, beautiful and inexpensive glass is produced by such companies as NEMTOI (Italy), LUMINARC and ARCOROC (France), DARTINGTON CRYSTAL (Great Britain).

Many designers are not afraid to be present in every home and do not strive to be super-exclusive. On the contrary, their goal is public accessibility. And at the same time, it is in their power to endow with dazzling humor even such a simple object as, say, a champagne flute. Original forms captivate with their simplicity or conquer with light madness. The works of such masters are inexpensive, buying even a whole set for the table will not undermine your budget. And at the same time, a special style, beauty, a joke will penetrate into the house. First of all, these designers rely on young people, easy-going and not afraid of experiments. But they also know how to please the representatives of the older generation, adding a little spice to the strict classics. We mean, first of all, such designer brands as LEONARDO (Germany), RITZENHOFF (Germany) and KOSTA BODA (Sweden).

Inexpensive designer items

The first German company in our review is LEONARDO, which has been working with glass for a long time and very successfully. The main thing is not to confuse it with other companies that in one way or another play on the name of the great Leonardo da Vinci in their names. The German manufacturer we are talking about supplies its products with a blue label with white clouds and the inscription LEONARDO. The technology of cast glass, despite its simplicity, does not make the items of this brand less valuable, but only allows them to be produced in large enough batches so that the work of the craftsmen is not overestimated. Most of all, LEONARDO loves colorless glass and playing with shapes. The company's collections include items for the table, for gifts and simply for decorating the room. LEONARDO prefers modern design, avant-garde and minimalism and is not afraid of pop art style. Often, shocking aesthetes, he uses the images of Santa Claus and Mickey Mouse. And at the same time, he strives to make his items as functional as possible, so often the same vase or bowl can serve for different purposes. There are practically no straight lines in the design, they are bent, refracted, bent.

LEONARDO attaches great importance to the decor of its products. Clean smooth surfaces are widely used. If the object is nevertheless decorated, then the most common motifs are Zen hieroglyphs, geometric shapes, as well as the jungle with predators and snakes. Colored products "scare" with their wild color. The color is unbridled, bright, far from ordinary - herbal, coal, mouse, scarlet, azure, violet, milky, even metallic. The order of prices is as follows: glasses and glasses - $ 12, plates - $ 20, vases - $ 38.

And yet, in the field of decor, LEONARDO is just a child compared to RITZENHOFF. This manufacturer produces glasses, glasses, glasses, ashtrays, cups of classic, familiar shapes, but their pattern cannot be called ordinary. The company holds a competition every year among designers and artists and selects those who will "make the weather" in the near future. RITZENHOFF glass is absolutely ordinary, obtained by casting. But the drawing is applied by hand, and often by the artists themselves who made the sketches. The style of the drawings is diverse: caricature, pop art, primitivism, avant-garde. The main distinguishing feature of RITZENHOFF decor is humor and an original idea. The collection of each designer has from 100 to 500 items and is produced once, without repetition. All items are sold in packaging made by the same author, with a certificate of authenticity, an autograph of the creator and a story about what this drawing means. Some collections are supplied with a unique napkin or stand. But, despite the fact that RITZENHOFF glass is a collector's item and an ideal gift, its prices are low. For example, a milk glass in an individual designer box costs about $30.

The Swedish company KOSTA BODA, like all northerners, has a hidden temperament. He uses glass that is rather difficult to manufacture: there are objects made of cobalt, crystal, and crackle (with the effect of ice). Manufacturing technology - casting, the number of copies of one type - up to 1000. Collections are produced one-time, but for several years you can order the item you like at the factory. One of the options for exterior finish is a coating with real silver sheet with a worn, patina effect. This is the company's trademark. KOSTA BODA offers collections of vases, tableware, gifts and watches. For gifts, a unique technology of glued glass is used: the product is dyed on the cut, then a layer of colorless glass is fused, then color again, and so on ad infinitum. The result is a frontally transparent object, and when you look at it from an angle, a color is revealed inside, and what kind. And of course, invariable primitivism - glass painting in the style of Matisse. On each product there are signatures of designers and artists. Prices are pleasantly affordable: silver glasses start at $35 each, large cobalt vases start at $60.

The triumph of aesthetes

And now let's talk about the collections of eminent manufacturers that produce mainly items for the table. Of course, this is not just serving, but a classic style and unchanging quality, a symbol of prosperity and respectability. And yet this category includes not only exceptional things that are used only at weddings or anniversaries, but also more modest and affordable.

Let's start the story about glass for aesthetes with the French brand CHRISTOFLE. In fact, it is primarily known for its silverware, but it can not do without crystal (precisely crystal, not glass). At CHRISTOFLE you will find everything you need to "drink beautifully". The subject of special pride is a variety of glasses, glasses, glasses, decanters, created specifically for different types of drinks (from wine to beer). Crystal CHRISTOFLE is made by hand and is very pleasant to the touch. An engraving is applied to the surface, which is then etched, which gives the engraved pattern a matte finish. The firm's know-how is special silver and silver plating, the recipe of which is kept secret. Silver is present in spectacular crystal objects for especially solemn occasions (stem glasses, handles of decanters, painting). Despite the fact that the brand has a classic design without extravagance, French glassmakers are constantly coming up with something new. In the upcoming collection, silver and gold will be present in the design of vodka shot glasses. Moreover, this is not a simple foil or painting, but a special technology of internal spraying. The cost of crystal glasses without silver is from $ 50.

The WATERFORD brand from Ireland is more democratic. It offers both a complete set for drinking and eating, as well as items for home decoration (vases, photo frames, figurines), plus collections for special occasions (wedding, anniversary, New Year's). A distinctive feature of WATERFORD is the technology of adding silicon oxide to the glass mass, which makes the crystal soft and pliable. This made it possible to create the famous brilliant cut (not to be confused with engraving). The surface of the crystal is textured, as if covered with protruding diamonds. The firm divides its collections more by age than by property principle: adults are offered expensive, heavy, thick-walled cut crystal, youth - light and thin with engraving. Products "for adults" are made exclusively by hand - from blowing to cutting, crystal "for young people" is technologically simpler, cast. The forms and decorations of the "adult" collection are conservative and classic (deep and brilliant cut), while the "young" collection is more avant-garde and laconic in form and decor - polishing, engraving, cutting of individual elements (legs, handles) are used. WATERFORD is the favorite brand of US presidents, inaugural feasts are held only with this crystal. It can be seen in the movies, sports cups and awards are made from it. Despite this, the cost of glasses from the "adult" collection - from $ 40, and from the "young" - from $ 15.

For people who want to decorate not only the table, but the whole house in a classic style, we can advise VILLEROY BOCH. Initial specialization of the company - table porcelain. This firm arose in the 19th century and was an indispensable companion of the richest and noblest people in Europe, including members of royal families. But time calls for change. In order to finally win the minds, the company also began to produce crystal, as well as a variety of items for the table (from napkin rings to napkins themselves), and more recently - items for the bedroom and bathroom. VILLEROY BOCH crystal is lightweight, with a minimum lead content, but with the addition (to enhance shine) of silver and soda. As a decoration, a pattern etched with acid is used. The shapes of the glasses are classic, the eminent brand prefers conservatism, adheres to a strict taste and monitors the impeccable quality of its products. You can distinguish VILLEROY BOCH products by the smooth transition from the stem to the glass and the diamond-cut pre-glass ball. Despite such frightening words as "conservatism" and "royal court", VILLEROY BOCH crystal does not frighten at all with its prices - a glass costs from $40.

It is also impossible not to pay attention to the BACCARAT brand (France) and, of course, to individual glass and crystal products of various designers (author's glass), which have been increasingly appearing on the Russian market lately.

On the island of Murano in Venice, there are many factories that produce inexpensive souvenir gizmos, which are often brought to us under the guise of exclusive Murano glass and sold at crazy prices. In order not to become a victim of fraud, you need to know that only a few factories on the island make exclusive glass. Murano glass cannot be confused with any other, it is clean, heavy, colored with metal oxides using complex threading, mosaic, millefiori or gilding techniques.

Real art

There are few glass and crystal products in the world that can be elevated to the rank of art. These are exclusive things made by hand, individually, provided with certificates, signatures and numbers. Prices for such items have no limit, but a small thing can be purchased by a person with an average income. Glass and crystal works of art will make the interior incomparable, they will definitely be in the spotlight. The brands that will be described below are also represented in our country, but abroad, the purchase will be cheaper, and the choice will be larger. In addition, an exquisite little thing will be a pleasant reminder of the trip. Murano glass, as a completely special, unlike any other, should be devoted to a separate article. Here we will consider only a few of his brands, which, in our opinion, deserve the closest attention.

Let's start with FORMIA. You will find her products in almost all gift shops in Russia, but beware of fakes. The price of FORMIA glass is low (although we sometimes inflate it to the point of obscenity), and the level of skill of glassblowers is simply exceptional. In these items, you can find all types of interior and exterior decoration mentioned in this article. And if you add a flight of imagination of designers to the delights of Murano glass, you get a work of art that is not ashamed to give or bring as a souvenir. The strong point of the firm is a variety of figurines: fish, horses, funny little men.

And now about the famous Murano artists. The SEGUSO VIRO firm decorates products with color, threads, magnificent interglass gilding. Moreover, the thinnest foil crumbles in vessels into the smallest grains, creating the effect of a golden haze. Designer Gianpaolo Seguso, a representative of the Seguso glassblowing dynasty, who founded his business in 1397, likes to combine different types of glass - cobalt, gilded, transparent, mosaic. All works of the master are signed, numbered and provided with a certificate. The SEGUSO VIRO collection includes vases, decorative plates, sculpture, small plastic.

The last two companies do not deal with table items, their work is decorations and gifts. I would like to finish the article about designer glass and crystal with a short story about the brand LALIQUE (France). The artist René Lalique founded the jewelry firm that bears his name in 1885. Later, the maestro became interested in glass. For the manufacture of its crystal, the company has developed a special glass mass containing silver. Unlike other brands, LALIQUE only blows and processes glass when it is hot, and the cooling process can take over 200 hours. All items are handmade in the factory and go through 30 hands of master glassblowers, glass cutters, etc. before ending up in the shop window. All crystal is subjected to the most careful selection, only 20% of manufactured products go on sale. Crystal is processed using the technique of satin finish (impact with hydrofluoric acid). This technique gives it a unique deep glow. The LALIQUE collections include figurines, vases, plates, glasses and wine decanters. The object of admiration has long been perfume bottles, produced in limited quantities and almost never repeated. Absolutely unique collection of crystal jewelry - necklaces, rings, earrings. But still the main direction of the company is vases and small plastic.

LALIQUE uses sketches by contemporary artists, as well as sketches from the beginning of the century - by René Lalique himself and his masters. Typical motifs are flora and fauna, female figures and angels, stylized as Art Nouveau and Art Deco. LALIQUE branded stores, which present new collections and classics of the brand, can be found all over the world. Owners of items from LALIQUE can be sure that they have in their hands true treasures that will never lose their value.

Colored artistic crystal is also produced by DAUM (France) and the Murano Island factories ZANETTI and GAMBARO POGGI.

The editors would like to thank HERMITAGE S. A., GEN-LEX ASSOCIATION, IITALA FINLAND, SIEGER DESIGN, VENEZIA salon, TWELVE Trade House, MBTM for their help in preparing the material.

Glass products belong to the so-called silicate products, i.e. products, which mainly contain various salts of silicic acid.

A wide variety of products are produced from glass: dishes, lamp glass, window glass, inkwells and ink devices, Christmas tree decorations, lenses for photographic lenses, etc. It is customary to classify household glassware as glassware, lamp glass and lamp products, window glass.

The production of glass and products from it has been known in our country since ancient times. It has been established that already in the 9th-10th centuries in Kievan Rus there were glass-making workshops in which various glass products were made, which were famous in a number of European countries.

The great Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov had a great influence on the development of glassmaking in Russia. He was the first in the world to put glassmaking on a scientific basis. At the glass factory organized by M. V. Lomonosov in Ust-Ruditsa (near Leningrad), the issue of producing a variety of colored glasses was practically resolved. M. V. Lomonosov created a huge (over 30 m 2) mosaic picture of colored glass "Poltava battle". Even in the pre-revolutionary period, Russian master glaziers created glass products of exceptional artistic value.

However, in general, the glass industry of pre-revolutionary Russia was artisanal and, despite the large number of enterprises, production output was very limited.

After the Great October Socialist Revolution, the glass industry developed rapidly. Along with the reconstruction of old factories, many new ones were built, technically well equipped (the plant named after Dzerzhinsky in Gus-Khrustalny, named after Stalin in Gomel and a number of others). The production of glass products has grown many times over, their assortment has expanded, and the quality has improved. An indicator of the high craftsmanship achieved by workers in the Soviet glass industry can be a crystal fountain 4.5 m high, shown in action at the World Exhibition in New York in 1939, a huge crystal vase made in honor of the seventieth birthday of Comrade Stalin, and a whole a number of other highly artistic glass products.

Soviet scientists, engineers and technicians play an outstanding role in the development of the science of glass and the improvement of glass production technology. Thanks to the work of Academician I. V. Grebenshchikov, prof. I. I. Kitaygorodsky, N. V. Solomin, D. V. Ginzburg, and others, the most diverse types of glass, glass products, and glass fabrics were produced in the USSR.

The creation of a number of completely new types of building glass should be considered a great achievement of the glass industry. Of these, foam glass is of particular interest, which is lighter than water and lends itself well to various mechanical processing.

The glass industry of the USSR also mastered the production of such types of utensils from the so-called heat-resistant glass as pots, pans and other products that can be used for cooking on heating appliances.

Getting glass

raw materials. Glass is obtained by melting a mixture of different materials, called a batch.

The composition of the charge for glass is not constant; it depends on what kind of glass (colorless or colored, transparent or muted) and with what properties they want to get.

The main material, constituting 65-75% of any charge for glass, is quartz sand. It must be as pure as possible, since impurities, primarily iron oxides, color the glass an unpleasant green or yellow color. In addition to quartz sand, the charge for plain glass includes soda or sulfate and chalk or limestone. In the manufacture of glass of higher quality, soda or sulfate is replaced with potash, and chalk or limestone with lead and barium compounds.

To eliminate the greenish or yellowish tint of glass and make it completely colorless, bleaching materials are introduced into the charge - selenium oxide, cobalt oxide, manganese dioxide, etc. These materials themselves color the glass in pink, blue, violet and other colors and thereby extinguish its greenish or yellowish tinge.

To obtain colored glass, oxides of various metals are introduced into the charge, which color the glass in different colors. So, for example, cobalt oxide colors glass blue; copper oxide - in red; chromium oxide - to green; manganese dioxide - in violet, etc.

Opaque glass is formed when mufflers are added to the charge. So, milky-colored glass is obtained by adding tin dioxide, cryolite mineral, etc.

In the manufacture of glass, glass cullet is also used, which facilitates the melting of the charge.

Glass melting. Direct melting of glass is usually preceded by careful preparation of raw materials. So, in particular, quartz sand is cleaned in various ways from part of the iron oxides contained in it. Lump materials, such as dolomite, are dried and thoroughly ground; powdered - dried and sieved.

Glassware

Glassware production

Household glassware is produced in two main ways - blowing (manual and machine) and pressing.

Dishes blowing. In the production of hand-blown glassware, half-cooled molten glass mass is collected at one end of a steel tube, which has a rubber balloon in the upper part, with the help of which air is forced into the tube. The invention of such a tube by Soviet engineers A. Ya. Grinberg, M. S. Gandshu and I. S. Blagoobrazov is a major achievement. Prior to this, air was blown into the tube by the glass blower directly by mouth, which made his work exhausting.

Under the pressure of the air injected into the tube, the glass mass expands, turning into a thick-walled bubble called a jar. The latter, after being heated in a furnace, sometimes after an additional set of glass mass on it, is inflated in special forms, in which it takes on the shape of a certain product or part of it. Forms are non-opening (for ordinary glasses and other simple-shaped products) and open (for figured products - decanters, jugs, etc.).

Products of complex shape (glasses, glasses, products with handles) are made in parts that are connected before the moment when the glass begins to solidify.

If the upper part of the products must be finished during blowing (the neck of decanters, the upper part of jugs, etc.), then after blowing them in the molds, they are fixed with the bottom on the so-called pontium (an iron rod with a circle at the end), or they are captured with various tools (grip), and then separated from the blow tube.

After blowing, the products are sent to special furnaces for the so-called annealing, in which the products are held for a certain period at a temperature of 500-600°C and then slowly cooled.

Thanks to this gradual cooling, the glass is evenly compressed in all layers and becomes thermally more stable, that is, able to withstand sharp temperature fluctuations within certain limits.

Annealed products are subjected to mechanical processing, which consists of the following main operations: a) removal of the cap, i.e., the upper part of the product; b) finishing the edge - leveling the edge of the product after cutting off the cap by grinding first with a slurry of sand and water on rotating cast-iron wheels (washers), and then on rotating stone wheels and, finally, polishing on wooden wheels using finely ground grinding materials; c) finishing of the bottom, throat and cork - leveling their surface by grinding and polishing.

For thin-walled products (glasses, glasses, etc.), the top edge is sometimes not polished, but melted on special machines.

Machine blowing is currently used mainly in the manufacture of glasses. The principle of machine blowing is to a certain extent similar to the principle of hand blowing: first, glass mass is collected, then the collected glass mass is converted into a jar, which is blown with compressed air, first outside the mold, and then in a metal mold.

Pressing dishes. During pressing, the molten glass mass is introduced in a certain amount into a press mold (matrix) having a recess. The shape of this recess corresponds to the outlines of the outer surface of the product. Then a core (punch) is pressed into this glass mass, the shape of which corresponds to the outlines of the inner surface of the product. There is a space between the walls of the mold and the core, which, when pressed, is filled with a glass mass that takes the shape of the product. If some pattern is engraved on the surface of the mold walls, the product, when pressed, is not smooth, but with a pattern.

Molded utensils are usually subjected to fire polishing, which consists in keeping the pressed products for some time in a flame. With such polishing, all surface irregularities of the product are melted, significantly improving its appearance. After that, the dishes are annealed.

Pressed ware is thicker and less thermally stable than blown ware. Heating and cooling of the thicker walls of pressed utensils occurs unevenly, therefore, with sharp temperature fluctuations, it can crack faster than blown utensils.

In some cases, a combined method for the production of glass products is used. So, for example, in the production of shaped lubricators, the plate (stand) is pressed, and the body of the lubricator is blown out. Such products have received the conditional name of press-blown.

Blown glassware decoration. Blown glassware can be decorated during its manufacture, as well as in finished, finished form.

When decorating dishes in the manufacturing process, products are obtained with a color, with a tangled thread, marbled, with an internal spiral, with a wavy surface (roller), etc.

Colored products are characterized by the fact that they consist of two (sometimes three) layers of glass of different colors.

To obtain such products, a thin-walled bubble is usually blown out of colored glass with a tube, it is strongly heated in a furnace, and, sucking air from the tube raised upwards, this bubble is turned into a double-walled hollow funnel. A jar of colorless glass is inserted into such a funnel, previously separated from the tube, and, strongly inflating it, solder it to the inner wall of the funnel. The outer wall of the funnel is sprayed with water and separated; then the jar, after heating in the oven, is blown into the mold into the finished product.

Products with a tangled thread are produced by winding a thread of molten colored glass onto a jar of colorless glass, followed by blowing the product into a mold. As a result, the surface of the product is covered with a relief grid of thin threads of colored glass.

Marble products usually have an inner layer of muted milky glass, and an outer layer of colorless glass. Between these layers are veins of glass of various colors. The easiest way to obtain such a product is that a milk glass jar is covered with pieces or strips of colored glass, then colorless glass is collected and the jar is blown into the finished product.

Products with an internal spiral are characterized by the presence of internal spiral threads of colored glass, the production of which is a very complex process.

Products with a wavy surface (roller) have longitudinal, as if vague edges, of different widths in certain parts of the product. Such products are obtained by blowing, first in a draft form with edges, and then in a finishing form.

Finished blown glassware is decorated with frosted ribbon and frosted pattern, decorative polishing, engraving, etching and painting.

Matte tape is applied to products on special machines using a slurry of sand and water, which is continuously fed under steel plates pressed against the surface of a rotating product. At the same time, sand grains scratch the surface of the product, leaving matte stripes on it along the width of the steel plates.

A matte pattern is obtained on the walls of products using a sandblaster. In this case, the products are placed in metal cases with holes in the form of a pattern. By directing a jet of sand at these holes, a matte pattern is obtained on the surface of the products, corresponding to the shape of the holes in the case.

Decorative grinding consists in the fact that with the help of water-wetted rotating stone circles of various profiles (cross-section), the upper layers of glass are gradually removed from the surface of the products pressed to these circles, obtaining facets of various shapes and sizes. These edges are then, as a rule, polished in the usual way.

Depending on the nature and complexity of the faces, decorative grinding is divided into simple, or gross, - in the form of round or oval, unrelated pits; number plate - in the form of somewhat more complex patterns; straight wide, or washer, - in the form of wide edges along the product; diamond - in the form of various, most often star-shaped or radiant patterns, composed of deep grooves. Diamond polishing is distinguished by a variety of patterns of varying complexity and therefore is subdivided for most products into 10 groups (ten numbers), and for some products (dishes, flower vases) - into 16 groups.

Engraving consists in the fact that shallow patterns are applied to the product using rotating copper discs and a special grinding paste. The resulting pattern is polished or left matte. Depending on the degree of complexity of the pattern, the engraving is divided into 10 groups, which are equated with the corresponding groups of diamond polishing when pricing dishes.

Etching is carried out using hydrofluoric (hydrofluoric) acid, which has the ability to destroy (dissolve) glass, leaving wax, paraffin, wood, etc. unchanged.

There are three types of etching: ordinary, pantograph and deep, or artistic.

With ordinary etching, the products are covered with a thin layer of mastic, most often from wax and paraffin. Patterns of various shapes are drawn on the mastic using a special machine (until the glass is exposed), after which the products are treated (usually by immersion) with an etching liquid. The hydrofluoric acid contained in the pickling liquid destroys the surface layer of glass in places freed from mastic, as a result of which, after removing the mastic layer by washing in a hot bath, a thin matte “lace” pattern remains on the surface of the products.

Pantograph etching differs from ordinary etching only in a more complex pattern, which is drawn on the mastic layer using a special machine - a pantograph. When pricing dishes, pantograph etching is equated to the first group of diamond polishing.

Deep (or artistic) etching is performed on products with a color by gradually etching colored glass in places where there should not be a pattern. As a result, a relief pattern of colored glass is formed on the surface of the products.

The technique of deep etching is much more complicated than ordinary and pantograph etching. When pricing dishes, deep etching is equated to a diamond facet of the eighth - tenth groups.

Painting - manual coloring of glassware with special silicate paints, which are finely ground fusible colored glasses ground on turpentine or mixtures of metal oxides with fluxes. The applied paints are fixed by firing products in special furnaces, and the paints melt, firmly fusing to the surface of the products.

The price of blown dishes largely depends on the type of decoration. So, for example, a tea glass with diamond polishing of the first group of complexity is estimated to be approximately twice as expensive as a smooth glass, and with diamond polishing of the tenth complexity group - about ten times more expensive.

Pressed utensils are relatively rarely subjected to special decoration. Patterns on it, as already mentioned above, are formed in the process of pressing itself.

However, in some cases, pressed products are subjected to grinding and continuous or partial etching. In this case, the price of dishes increases significantly.

Numbering patterns on glassware. Each pattern applied to blown glassware is assigned a specific number. So, for example, matte tape is numbered No. 11, simple grinding patterns - Nos. 12-18, numbered grinding - Nos. 20-28, ordinary etching - No. 80-84, pantograph etching No. 130-133, puck face - No. 1200. The eyes of diamond polishing and engraving are numbered in groups with three- and four-digit numbers, with the hundreds digits indicating the group number. So, the patterns of diamond polishing of the first group have Nos. 100-106 and engravings - Nos. 150-153, patterns of the second group of diamond polishing - Nos. 200-208 and engravings - Nos. 250-254, patterns of the tenth group of diamond polishing - Nos. 1000-1037 and engravings - Nos. 1051-1060. Picturesque drawings are designated by various numbers: Nos. 80-95, 1170-1183, etc. Sometimes they are given certain names: red poppy, violet, etc.

Assortment of glassware

Depending on the main purpose, glassware is distinguished for household and dining (high-quality) glassware.

Household utensils. According to the nature of the glass mass, household utensils are divided into two groups: utensils made of ordinary glass and utensils made of heat-resistant glass.

Dishes from ordinary glass are produced by blowing. Its assortment is limited: jars for jam and pickles, milk jars, bottles for kvass, barrels with lids (exhibition).

Jars for jam are made in a cylindrical shape; in the upper part they have the so-called flare (protrusion and depression), which serves to tie the jar. The sizes of cans by capacity are from 1 to 6 kg.

Jars for pickles are characterized by a neck tapering upwards; their standard capacity is 6 and 8 liters.

Krynki for milk in the lower part have a spherical shape, and at the top - a narrowed throat. The capacity of the jug for milk is from 1.2 to 3.0 liters.

Bottles for kvass have a wide mouth; their capacity is from 2 to 8 liters.

Barrels with a lid are usually parabolic (barrel-shaped); their capacity is from 3 to 12 liters.

The range of heat-resistant glassware includes frying pans, baking dishes, oval roasters and pots. They are produced by pressing from glass mass of a special composition. Thanks to a special treatment, which consists in rapid and very uniform cooling, the heat-resistant dishes acquire high thermal stability and can be used for cooking on heating devices.

Tableware (high-quality) utensils. The range of tableware is more diverse. Tableware is subdivided according to the method of production, type, style, size, nature of the decoration and the nature of the glass mass.

According to the production method, tableware is divided into blown, pressed and press-blown.

The types of dishes are very diverse: glasses, saucers, sugar bowls, butter dishes, decanters, wine glasses (large glasses for fruit water and beer), glasses, glasses, goblets, jugs, milk jars, vases, salad bowls, croutons, tea caddies, plates, trays, ashtrays, vodka, liquor, beer and other devices.

The style of dishes is most often determined by the design of the product or its shape. So, for example, depending on the design, decanters are distinguished with a handle and without a handle, with a tray and without a tray, with a leg and without a leg. In shape, the same decanters can be a ball, oval, conical, rhombus, etc.

The dimensions of most hollow products (glasses, decanters, jugs, glasses, etc.) are usually indicated by their capacity in cubic centimeters and liters, and flat products (plates, trays, etc.) - by diameter in centimeters. Certain types of products (flower vases) are measured in height, and some (fruit vases, cookies, etc.) are measured in height and diameter.

According to the nature of the decoration, the dishes are divided into dishes with a matte ribbon, decorative polishing, etching, etc.

According to the nature of the glass mass, the dishes are divided into dishes made of ordinary colorless glass, barite, lead (crystal) and colored glass.

Ordinary glass refers to colorless soda-potassium-lime glass obtained from sand, soda or sulfate, potash and chalk or limestone.

Lead (potassium-lead), or crystal, glass contains a fairly high percentage of lead oxide. Products made from this glass are characterized by increased specific gravity, transparency, high, clear and long-lasting sound when struck on the edge.

Barite glass contains barium oxide. Products made of this glass are somewhat inferior to products made of lead glass in terms of transparency, specific gravity and sound when struck on the edge.

Colored glasses have various names. Their main types are: cobalt (bright blue), ruby ​​(red), rosaline (pink), yellow, canary (bright yellow), green, sapphire (light blue), marblite (black), milky.

The following is a brief description of the main types of glass tableware.

Glasses are produced by blowing and pressing.

Blown glasses according to purpose and shape are divided into the following types:

a) tea - with a capacity of 200-250 cm 3,

b) wine (piles) - with a capacity of 50-150 cm 3,

c) conical - with a capacity of 100-200 cm 3,

d) with a thickened bottom - with a capacity of 35 to 300 cm 3,

e) shaped for wine - with a capacity of 35-75 cm 3.

Glasses pressed according to their purpose are divided into tea (200 cm 3), wine (75 and 100 cm 3), for mineral waters (200, 250 and 300 cm 3).

Saucers - are made by blowing and pressing; by appointment, they are divided into tea (diameter 130 mm) and for jam (diameter 90-100 mm).

Sugar bowls can be blown and pressed. Blown sugar bowls are always made with a lid, without a tray, with a tray (low leg-stand) and on a leg, with a capacity of 400-500 cm 3. Pressed sugar bowls come with and without lids, the latter with high or low stems. The sizes of pressed sugar bowls are indicated by the diameter of the upper part and by height.

Blowing oilers are divided into two types according to their design:

a) with a side and with a lid, without a pallet and

b) shaped with a cap on a plate.

The capacity of the oilers is 400-500 cm3. Pressed oilers are also available in two types: with a side and a lid and with a cap on a plate. Their dimensions are indicated by diameter and height in millimeters.

Decanters, as a rule, are produced by blowing. By appointment, they are divided into decanters for water and decanters for wine. Water carafes are usually produced in a conical shape, with a capacity of 1500, 2000 and 2500 cm 3. Night carafe for water with a capacity of 500 cm 3 instead of a cork has a glass that closes the carafe's wide neck. Wine decanters differ in various shapes (ball, oval, rhombus, cone) and various designs (without a pallet, on a pallet, on a leg, with a handle, without a handle). The capacity of decanters for wine is from 250 to 1500 cm 3. A spherical decanter with a polished stopper, with a capacity of 250 and 400 cm 3 is called rum.

Pitchers, depending on the shape of the body and design, are conical (without a pallet and on a pallet), spherical (without a pallet and on a pallet) and shaped, with a body of various shapes. The capacity of jugs is from 1000 to 2000 cm3.

Milk jugs are small jugs made by blowing and pressing. Blown milk jugs come in various styles (spherical, pear-shaped, conical), with a capacity of 200-600 cm 3 . Pressed milk jugs are less common than blown ones, their capacity is from 100 to 190 cm 3.

Wine glasses, glasses, goblets are produced only by blowing. They are subdivided according to the shape of the upper part (ordinary, barrel, etc.) and the shape of the legs (smooth, faceted, column, etc.). Wine glasses are intended mainly for soft drinks, their capacity is 200-250 cm 3; glasses - for sparkling wines, their capacity - 100-150 cm 3; glasses - for liquor, their capacity - 25 cm 3.

Blown glasses, like wine glasses, differ in the shape of the upper part and the shape of the legs, their capacity is 30-40, 50-60, 75 and 100 cm 3. Pressed glasses can be on a high and low leg, with a capacity of 25 to 55 cm 3. Pressing also produces glasses for eggs with a diameter of 40-50 mm and a height of 80 mm.

Vases can be blown and pressed. Blown vases according to their purpose are divided into vases for fruit, cookies, jam, cream, sweets and flowers.

Fruit and biscuit vases are made open, usually with various stem shapes, with biscuit vases being flatter and smaller than fruit vases. Vases for jam are made with a lid, for sweets they are open, most often on a high leg. Cream vases are small open vases. All these vases differ in the shape of the stem (smooth, curly, faceted); the dimensions of the vases are determined by the diameter of the upper part and by the height in millimeters.

Flower vases come in a variety of shapes and sizes. are divided into two main groups: drawn and shaped. Their dimensions are indicated either by height, or by height and diameter in millimeters.

Pressed vases can be for fruits and biscuits, cake (flat) and flowers. Their sizes are varied, determined by the diameter and height in millimeters.

Molded salad bowls are subdivided in shape into round, bottom and boat, with a diameter of 130 to 300 mm. Pressed salad bowls are distinguished by a variety of styles and sizes. By design, they are without legs and on three legs, without handles and with handles; in shape - round and oval.

Blown biscuit bowls are similar in shape to a round salad bowl, they have three small curly legs. Their dimensions are indicated by diameter and height in millimeters.

Cheese caps consist of a plate and the cap itself and can be blown or pressed.

Pressed plates can be with a smooth and serrated edge, ordinary and on three, like biscuits, legs, sometimes they have handles. The sizes are very diverse (from 90 to 290 mm).

Dishes are produced by blowing and pressing. Blown dishes - round, with a smooth or carved edge, their diameter is 275-300 mm; pressed dishes, as a rule, are oval in shape, sometimes they have two handles.

Pressed trays can be round, oval and rectangular (with oval corners) shape, different sizes. They are usually part of a device (liquor, water, etc.). Blown trays (less common) are round, their diameter is from 200 to 350 mm.

Herring pots are produced by pressing from colorless and colored glass, they have a variety of shapes (oval, straight, in the form of a fish, etc.) and sizes. They are often decorated with polishing and etching.

The garnish device is a combined pressed product for simultaneous serving of various types of garnish on the table. Such a device can be a single piece in the form of a small salad bowl with several compartments or consist of a tray with several inserts.

The range of glassware also includes horseradish mugs, lemon squeezers, mustard pots, salt shakers, ashtrays, beer mugs, tea caddies, various cutlery (kitchen, liquor, wine, water, toilet), glass holders, knife stands, spoons, forks and other items.

Items for glassware. Articles for glass tableware are indicated by serial numbers. Each number indicates a product of a certain type (glass, saucer, decanter, etc.), purpose or style and size. So, for example, article No. 1 is assigned to a tea saucer with a diameter of 130 mm, and article No. 2 is assigned to a jam saucer with a diameter of 90 mm. In some cases, articles are indicated by a fraction, for example, article No. 46/1-5. The numerator in such a fraction characterizes the type, purpose and style of the dishes, and the denominator characterizes the style feature. Articles for decanters with a handle have an additional letter R.

Sorting glassware

Blown glass tableware is divided into the 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades; pressed tableware and household utensils made of heat-resistant glass - for the 1st and 2nd grades. Household utensils made of ordinary glass are put on sale in one grade.

Tableware is sorted on the basis of defects found on it in glass mass, production and processing. At the same time, they take into account: the type (name) of the defect, its size and location (on the body, leg, bottom), the number of defects of the same name on the product, the total number of names of defects, the size of the product itself (on large products, defects are allowed in a larger number or larger sizes) , the method of manufacturing dishes (blown or pressed), the nature of the decoration of the product (for products with expensive cuts, more stringent requirements are imposed on the quality of their processing).

Glassware defects include: various shades of glass mass (greenish, bluish, etc.); stone - not melted particles of the charge, refractory materials of the furnace or pots or areas of the beginning of crystallization of the glass mass; schlier - glass clots of a slightly different composition than the main glass mass, and not completely dissolved in it; usually has the shape of a drop; svil - transparent wavy threads in glass or on the surface of the product; bubble - gaseous inclusions in glass; midge - small bubbles (with a diameter of not more than 0.8 mm); incorrect distribution of the glass mass - uneven thickness of the walls and bottom of the products; incorrect shape of the product; improper attachment of the handle or leg; defects in the processing of the edge and bottom of products - crevices, scree of the edge (minor damage to the edge), sharp edge, traces of ponti, etc .; decoration defects - incorrect arrangement of patterns, etching of smooth places, wrong edges, etc.

Good-quality dishes should be of the correct shape, stable, not sway when placed on a flat surface. The lids of sugar bowls, butter bowls, vases, jugs in color, style, size must match the body of the product. Corks for decanters should be correctly matched in style and color and tightly ground to the throat. The edge of blown and pressed products must be well melted or ground and polished.

The following are not allowed in the dishes: crevices with sharp edges (not melted); blisters cloudy and sagging and blisters transparent with a diameter of more than 3 mm; midge, densely located; stones; scale - iron particles from blow pipes; scree edges; cuts - barely noticeable cracks; roc (crystallized opaque glass particles); blown walls - too thin walls in some places of the products. In tea glasses, in addition, schlieren and chips are not allowed.

Both blown and pressed utensils must be thermally stable. When checking the thermal stability of glasses, they are poured with a gentle stream of hot water having a temperature of at least 95 °, then, when the water cools to 65 ° (in blown glasses) or to 55 ° (in pressed glasses), the glasses are quickly emptied and immersed in water having a temperature of 20°. Other types of dishes are tested by immersion for 5 minutes in water having a temperature of 55 °, and then in water having a temperature of 20 °. During this test, the products shall not crack.

To check the grade of dishes, samples are taken from different places in the amount: from a batch of up to 100 pieces - 10%, from a batch of up to 1000 pieces - 5% and from a batch of more than 1000 pieces - 2%.

To check the thermal stability of dishes, samples are taken from the batch in the amount of 100 pieces.

Lamp glass, tanks and glass lamps

Lamp glass. Lamp glass is produced by blowing in special shapes. The range of lamp glass is grouped according to the range of kerosene lamps, i.e., by style and size. There is a distinction between lamp glass for burners with a round wick (lightning, miracle, matador) and for burners with a flat wick. The dimensions of the lamp glasses are indicated according to the dimensions of the lamp burners in lines (along the width of the wick). So, glass for lamps with a flat wick is produced in sizes of 5, 7 and 10 lines, for lightning lamps - 20 and 30 lines, miracle lamps - 15 lines.

Glasses for kerosene lanterns are conditionally referred to as lamp glasses.

According to the quality, lamp glasses are divided into 1st and 2nd grades. The grade of glass is determined by the presence of defects in the glass mass (schlier, striae, bubbles, etc.) and defects in the development (holes, oblique cuts, etc.). Lamp glasses must be well annealed and pass the thermal stability test.

Lamp tanks. Like lamp glasses, lamp tanks are blown. According to the shape, there are tanks in a lyre (a wire device for hanging lamps) and tanks in a foulard (a tin box for wall and table lamps).

glass lamps. According to the design, one-piece glass lamps, with a pressed leg, and collapsible lamps “with a pedestal”, consisting of a hollow glass stand and a glass tank, are distinguished.

Window glass

In the USSR, window glass was produced only by machine. This method consists in the fact that a special boat made of refractory material is placed on the surface of the molten glass mass, having a longitudinal slot through which the glass is squeezed out in the form of a tape. The tape of glass mass is captured by a special device and pulled up. At a certain height, the tape enters the rollers, with which it rises further along the machine shaft. Here, already in a cooled state, the tape is cut with a diamond and then cut into sheets of a certain size.

Soviet craftsmen (engineer Cherednichenko, Riga plant) achieved the world's highest speed of drawing a glass ribbon - about 140 running meters per hour.

Soviet glass factories have also developed a technically more advanced method of drawing glass without a boat directly from the surface of the glass mass.

Window glass is grouped by thickness, sheet size and quality.

According to the thickness, window glass is divided into groups bearing conditional names: single thinned glass, single normal glass, one and a half glass, double glass, triple glass, thickened glass.

Depending on the size, the glass is grouped into so-called keys, or digits (from 1 to 16), and the glass key denotes a certain area of ​​the glass sheet. So, for example, the first key includes window glass with an area of ​​up to 0.1 m 2, the second - up to 0.3 m 2, the ninth - from 2.5 to 3.0 m 2, etc.

By quality, window glass is divided into 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades. When sorting, the correctness of the shape of the glass sheet and the presence of general defects in the glass mass (stones, bubbles, midges, color shades, etc.) and production defects (banding, gaps, etc.) are taken into account.

Marking, packaging, transportation and storage of glass products

Marking. Glassware is marked by sticking a paper label on each product, which indicates the name of the plant and the grade of the product. The color of the label for products of different varieties should be different, for example, red, blue, green. On each pack of products, a label is additionally glued with the designation of the plant, article number, pattern number and product grade. This additional marking is very important, as it makes it easy to check the prices of products according to the price list.

Lamp glasses in the upper part are stamped with the designation of the plant, the type of glass, its size and grade.

Window glass is marked by stamping the boxes with the designation of the factory, the type of glass (in terms of thickness), the size of the sheets, the key, the grade and the number of square meters of glass in the box.

Packing and transportation. According to the requirements of GOST, utensils with diamond and washer cuts, engraving and pantograph are wrapped in paper, then wrapped in straw, shavings or other packaging materials and placed in a paper bag or corrugated (wavy) paper. Straw, shavings and other packaging materials can be used when packing blown utensils with other types of cuts and pressed utensils.

Dishes are transported in covered wagons without containers (in bulk), but carefully stacked in rows, as well as in boxes (products with a leg and with a handle - only in boxes).

Window glass is packed in wooden boxes. Depending on the thickness of the glass, from 7 to 25 m 2 of glass can be placed in a box. The number of glass sheets in a box depends on their size (key).

Lamp glass is tied into straw and packed in packs of 6 and 12 pieces. The upper edge of glasses for lamps with a round wick is wrapped with paper according to the standard. Lamp tanks and glass lamps are placed in wooden boxes, after tying them in straw.

Storage. Glass products are relatively resistant to external atmospheric influences and therefore do not require special storage conditions. However, their long-term storage in damp rooms, and even more so in the open air, is unacceptable.

Glass is a breakable product, so the warehouse for its storage should be spacious enough and convenient for receiving, placing and issuing goods.

Glassware and lamp glass should be placed in the warehouse on the shelves, as a rule, not flat, but end face.

Boxes with window glass should only be stored upright and never flat.

Fundamentals of the production of glass goods. The technological process of production of glass products is divided into the following main stages: preparation of glass mass, melting of glass mass, production of products, firing, processing and cutting of glass products.

Glassware preparation. The preparation of glass melt consists of the preparation of raw materials, batching and glass melting.

Preparation of raw materials. Raw materials used for the production of various types of glass are divided into two groups with some conventionality: basic or glass-forming and auxiliary (clarifiers, decolorizers, dyes, opacifiers, oxidizing agents, reducing agents and cooking accelerators).

Basic (glass-forming) materials. Glass-forming materials include silica, boric anhydride, alumina, sodium sulfate, soda, potash, limestone, dolomite, minium and litharge, witherite, and zinc oxide.

Silica (Si0 2) is introduced into the glass in the form of quartz sand. The silica content in high-grade quartz sands should be 99.0-99.8%, and the amount of impurities should not exceed 0.2-1%. The most common harmful impurities are iron oxide and ferrous oxide, which, even in small quantities, give the glass an undesirable yellowish-greenish color that reduces the transparency of the glass. To speed up the glass melting process, quartz sands with a grain size of 0.2 to 0.5 mm are used.

Boric anhydride (B 2 O 3) is added to the glass mass in the form of boric acid (H 3 BO 3) and borax. B 2 O 3 increases the thermal and chemical resistance of glass, improves the optical properties of glass, and speeds up the melting process.

Aluminum oxide (Al 2 O 3) is added to the glass composition in the form of alumina, feldspar, pegmatite, kaolin and nepheline. Al 2 O 3 reduces the ability of glass to crystallize, improves its thermal, chemical and mechanical properties.

Sodium sulfate (Na 2 O 2) is used to introduce sodium oxide (Na 2 O) into glass.

Soda (Na 2 CO 3) is used for the same purpose as sodium sulfate. Soda ash is mainly used in glass production.

Potash (K 2 CO 3) serves as a raw material for introducing potassium oxide (K 2 O) into glass. Potassium oxide increases the brilliance of glass, improves its color and transparency.

Limestone is used to introduce calcium oxide (CaO) into glass. Calcium oxide accelerates the melting process, increases the chemical resistance of the glass and contributes to its lightening.

Dolomite (CaCO 3; MgCO 3) is a double salt of calcium and magnesium. Magnesium oxide (MgO) reduces the rate of crystallization and significantly improves the chemical, thermal and mechanical properties of glass.

Red lead and litharge are used to introduce lead oxide (PbO) into crystal and optical glass.

Witherite (BaCO 3) is used to introduce barium oxide (BaO), which increases the refractive index, density and brilliance of glass.

Zinc oxide (ZnO) is introduced in the form of zinc oxide. It increases the refractive index, increases the chemical resistance of the glass.

Auxiliary materials. These include clarifiers, bleaches, dyes, opacifiers, oxidizing and reducing agents, cooking accelerators.

Clarifiers contribute to the release of glass mass from large and small bubbles, give it uniformity. Clarifiers are sodium sulfate, arsenic trioxide and saltpeter.

Decolorizers are used to reduce or remove color shades of glass. Arsenic trioxide, saltpeter, sulfate, sodium chloride, antimony oxide, etc. are used as bleaching agents.

Dyes are added during the glass melting process to color it in a certain color. There are staining of glass with molecular dyes (oxides of heavy and light metals) and colloidal dispersion dyes (compounds of gold, silver, copper, selenium, antimony).

Silencers are used to make glass opaque. These are fluorine compounds, phosphate compounds, a compound of tin and antimony. Silencers paint the glass white.

Oxidizing and reducing agents are added when melting colored glass to create an oxidizing and reducing environment. They are sodium and potassium nitrate, arsenic trioxide, carbon, cream of tartar, tin dichloride.

Cooking accelerators help speed up glass melting: these include fluoride compounds, boric anhydride, aluminum and aluminum salts.

Blending. All raw materials needed for glass production are processed. Quartz sand is enriched, i.e.; reduce the amount of iron and other impurities in it. Then sand, soda, saltpeter are dried, dolomite, chalk, limestone are crushed and sifted through vibrating screens. After preparation of raw materials proceed to the preparation of the mixture.

A charge is a mixture of raw materials in a given proportion. To speed up the cooking process, 25-30% of cullet (of the same composition) is added to the mixture. The starting materials are thoroughly mixed.

Glass melting. Melting is the main stage of the technological process, on which the quality of glass depends. Under the influence of high temperature, the mixture turns into a liquid glass mass with certain physical and chemical properties. The melting process takes place in two types of glass melting furnaces: pot or bath furnaces (batch and continuous operation), or electric furnaces.

Production of glass products. The main ways to produce household dishes are: blowing, pressing, pressing blowing and centrifugal casting.

The blow molding method can be manual (for products of complex shapes) and mechanized. In the manual method, metal self-blowing tubes are used, into which air is supplied by a special rubber balloon. The heated end of the tube is lowered into the glass mass, which sticks to the heated metal. A certain amount of glass is wound onto the tube, leveled on a metal table, and then a “jar” is blown into a small bubble, from which products are finally blown in a metal detachable form.

A mechanized blowing method using a vacuum machine is used to produce glasses.

Pressing is a simpler way of making products than blowing. The pressing process is as follows: a certain weight drop of glass mass is fed into a mold (matrix), into which a punch is lowered, exerting pressure on the glass mass during its movement, the latter filling the space between the mold and the punch. Products are pressed on manual, semi-automatic and automatic presses.

The press-blowing method of manufacturing products is carried out in two steps: first, the blank is pressed out and the edges of the product are trimmed, and then the blank is blown with compressed air to the specified dimensions. The production of these products is carried out on automatic machines.

The method of centrifugal casting is still little used. A certain portion of glass mass is fed into a rapidly rotating mold, which is evenly distributed and acquires the configuration of a finished product.

Annealing. The annealing process for household glass products consists in heating them and keeping them at a temperature of 530-580 °C. Then the products are cooled to room temperature. Two types of furnaces are used for annealing: furnaces (intermittent operation) and more modern - conveyor (continuous operation). Annealing helps to reduce internal stresses in the product.

Processing and cutting of glass products. The processing of products includes the separation of caps from blown products, the processing of the edge and bottom of the product.

Decorations are applied to the bulk of blown glassware, i. they are divided. Products are decorated either in the process of their development (in a hot state), or when they are ready (in a cold state).

Decorations applied to glass products during their production (in a hot state).

Colored glass is obtained by adding dyes to glass mass.

Colored products are made from one layer of glass and covered with one or two layers of intensely colored glass.

Rice. The main types of jewelry glass products:

1 - matte tape; 2 - number encryption; 3 - engraving; 4 - diamond face; 5 - etching; a - simple; b - complex; c - deep; 6 - letter face; 7 - roller;

8 - crackle; 9 - gold; 10 - painting with paint and gold; 11 - colored thread; 12 - colored stripes

Marble decoration is obtained in the process of melting milk glass, to which ground, unmixed colored glass is added, due to which the impression of veins in marble is created. Malachite-like glassware is decorated in a similar way.

Decoration with glass fabrics is a promising type of product decoration. Glass fabric of a certain size is applied to an almost finished product, the fabric is fused to the glass surface, and the product is blown out.

Decoration with a colored embankment is as follows: the heated workpiece is rolled on the table over the poured crushed colored glass, which envelops the workpiece and fuses to its surface, after which the workpiece is heated again.

Guten work is typical for products made by blowing without a mold. According to the artist's intention, the surface of the product may have recesses, bulges and sticks.

Crackle decoration is obtained when the workpiece is dipped in cold water, then heated in an oven and blown out. At the same time, the surface of the product is covered with small and large cracks, creating a peculiar pattern.

Decoration with filigree or twisting, gives the product an openwork, has the appearance of two or three colored spiral threads.

Chandeliers are obtained by applying solutions of organic metal compounds in organic solvents to the surface of products and subsequent firing. During firing, solvents burn out, and a film of metals or their oxides is fixed on the surface.

The surface of products with cutting irrization has iridescent overflows. Products are heated in a muffle furnace in an atmosphere of vapor mixture of tin chloride, strontium nitrate and barium chloride, which, settling on the surface of the product, are firmly connected to it and give different shades with overflows (reminiscent of mother-of-pearl).

Decorations applied to finished products (when cold). All decorations applied to finished products in a cold state are made by mechanical, chemical methods and painting.

Matte tape, numbered grinding, diamond cutting, engraving, and a straight wide edge are applied to products mechanically.

Matte ribbon is the simplest type of decoration. A metal strip is pressed against the surface of the product, under which sand and water are fed; grains of sand scratch the glass, and a matte stripe is obtained.

Numbered grinding is a pattern in the form of pits, grooves connected by inclined slots. The drawing is applied using sand, corundum and emery circles.

A diamond facet is a carving on glass. The drawings consist of deep trihedral slits and grooves that form a complex geometric pattern. The diamond edge is applied using corundum and electrocorundum single and multi-blade wheels sharpened at a certain angle. Then the product is polished.

Engraving - the drawing is flat, without large recesses, matte, more often of a plant theme; the pattern is applied using copper or alundum disks of different diameters.

A straight wide edge is one of the varieties of faceting. It is applied to products with cast-iron or sand washers.

Using a chemical method, simple, complex (pantograph) and deep etchings are applied to products.

Simple and complex etching is carried out as follows: the product is covered with a mastic consisting of wax, paraffin, rosin and turpentine, then a pattern is drawn in it using thin needles, after which the exposed glass surface is etched in a hydrofluoric acid bath. Simple etching is characterized by a simple pattern, a more complex pattern is applied on pantographic machines (complex etching).

Deep etching is carried out on two-, three-layer glass manually with a brush. By repeated treatment with hydrofluoric acid, a relief pattern is obtained on the surface of the product.

Picturesque drawings are applied manually and semi-automatically with paints, 12% gold solution, enamels, chandeliers, followed by firing at a temperature of 580-600 ° C.

Chemical composition and properties of glass. Lime-soda-potassium, lead-potassium and borosilicate glass are used for dishes.

The approximate composition of glass is expressed by the "normal glass formula" R2O. RO. 6SiO 2 , which is a trisilicate, and R2O refers to monovalent oxides Na 2O, Ka 2O; RO - bivalent CaO, MgO, PbO, etc., along with silicon oxides, the composition of the glass includes Al 2O3, Fe 2O3, etc. The most common glass compositions contain 14-16% monovalent oxides; divalent - 11-12% and silica - 71-75%.

There are chemical and physical properties of glass.

Chemical properties include the chemical resistance of glass, i.e. its ability to withstand the destructive action of various media and reagents. Glass is a chemically resistant material.

Physical properties of glass: viscosity, density, strength, brittleness, hardness, heat resistance, etc.

The viscosity for each type of glass at a certain temperature is a constant.

The density of various glasses ranges from 2200-6000 kg/m3 (2.2-6.0 Mg/m3). Soda-lime glass has a density of 2.5, and crystal is about 3.0 Mg/m 3 and higher.

The tensile strength of glass is low - from 35 to 90 mN/m 2 , and in compression - from 500 to 2000 mN/m 2 .

Brittleness - the property of glass to break under the action of a shock load without plastic deformation. Glass has increased brittleness, MgO and Al 2 O 3 oxides reduce it.

Hardness is the ability of glass to resist the penetration of another body into it. According to the mineralogical Mohs scale, the hardness of glass is 4.5–7.5.

The thermal conductivity of glass is very low and ranges from 0.7 to 1.34 W/m deg.

The thermal expansion of glass is characterized by a linear expansion coefficient, which for various glasses ranges from 5.8*10 -7 to 151*10 -7 , for many glasses of mass use it is 100*10 -7 deg -1 .

Thermal stability - the ability of glass to withstand sudden changes in temperature without breaking.

Of the optical properties of glass, the main ones are transparency and the refractive index of glass. The transparency of glass depends on the chemical composition of the glass and on the presence of iron oxides in it. The refractive index of glasses of various compositions ranges from 1.475 to 1.96; for ordinary glass it is 1.5; for crystal - 1.55 and above.

Classification and range of glass products. Household glass products are classified according to the main features: purpose, production method, type of glass, color, size, cutting method, completeness, etc.

By appointment, household glass products are divided into five groups: household utensils; art products; household utensils, kitchen utensils; lamp products.

According to the production method, household glass products are divided into blown, pressed, press-blown and made by centrifugal casting.

According to the type of glass, products are soda-potassium-lime (ordinary), potassium-lead (crystal) and borosilicate (heat-resistant).

By color, they can be colored and with a color.

By size, the products are divided into small, medium, large and extra large.

Cutting plays a leading role in the creation of products, which gives ample opportunities for decorating it. Cutting is not always applied to products, and the desired effect is achieved using only shape and color. The greatest variety in terms of cutting, of course, is characterized by blown utensils and cuts on press-blown utensils are less interesting. Decorations on the latter are applied during the development process.

In terms of completeness, household glass products can be piece and complete (sets and services).

The range of glassware, depending on the method of production and purpose, is divided into the following groups: blown products; pressed products; press-blown products; crystal products; household utensils; kitchenware.

Blown tableware is very diverse: its range includes hundreds of items. Blown tableware can be piece and complete. According to their purpose, saucers are divided into tea - with a diameter of 110-140 mm and for jam - with a diameter of 75-100 mm. Dishes are produced in different styles and sizes - with a diameter of 275-420 mm.

Goblets, goblets, glasses and wine glasses produce different styles and sizes. Glasses have a capacity of 15-25 cm 3, glasses - 30-100 cm 3, glasses 100-150 cm 3, wine glasses - 175-350 cm 3.

Glasses for their intended purpose are: for tea - manual and machine production; for wine; for beer; for mineral and fruit waters; road flat thick-walled.

The assortment of blown tableware includes vases, decanters, jugs, oilers, milk jugs, salad bowls, sugar bowls, etc.

Cups with handles and beer mugs are limited.

Tea caddies (for storing dry tea) are produced with a ground stopper and with a metal frame.

Tea utensils (three items), bowl utensils (nine items), wine utensils (6-7 items), water utensils (7 items), milk utensils and toilet utensils belong to complete tableware and are characterized by versatility.

The range of pressed glassware is considerably narrower blown. The range of pressed products includes saucers for jam and tea, vases for jam, cream, sweets, biscuits, fruits, flowers, caviar bowls, lemon squeezers, butter dishes, bowls, trays, glasses, salad bowls, sugar bowls, glasses, herring bowls, plates. Pressed products are distinguished by their simplicity of form and decor.

Press-blown crockery has a limited assortment: decanters of various styles and capacities, four-piece dinnerware, oilers, etc.

Household utensils include products used for cooking and storing food, pickles, jam, kvass, water, etc. (jars, bottles, kegs of various capacities).

Kitchen utensils made of heat-resistant glass (borosilicate) and glass ceramics are intended for cooking. Its range includes: braziers, pots, pans and baking dishes.

Crystal products are produced by blowing and press-blowing methods. The range of blown crystal products is very similar to blown glassware - these are dishes, goblets, glasses, glasses, wine glasses, vases for sweets, cookies, jams, fruits, flower vases, decanters for wine, jugs for water, butter dishes, salad bowls, sugar bowls, glasses and etc. It should be noted that crystal products are produced both piece and complete. Complete crystal products are represented by flask utensils, water, wine, toilet utensils, etc. Pressed crystal products have a narrower assortment. To create the illusion of a blown product on pressed crystal products, the pattern pressed from the mold is refined with a diamond facet.

Assessment of the quality of glass goods. The quality of glass products is influenced by many factors: structural and dimensional features, mechanical strength, thermal stability, hygienic, aesthetic properties, etc. In terms of structural and dimensional features, household glassware must comply with approved samples. Products on a flat horizontal surface should not swing. Glass products must have good mechanical strength. The thermal stability of products is considered satisfactory if 99% of the tested products pass the tests prescribed by GOST.

It is necessary that glass products have transparency and no color shades (especially crystal). Products made of colored glass and glass with a color must be evenly colored.

It is important that the surface of the product has a clean, smooth surface without burrs and scratches and a clearly defined pattern. The edge of the product should not be cutting, for this it is melted, ground and polished.

In accordance with the current GOST, glass tableware and decorative items are produced in one grade. Crystal products are divided into grades 1 and 2. When determining the grade of a product, the type of defect, its size, quantity and location are taken into account. On glass products there are defects in glass mass, working out and processing. These defects occur during the process of cooking, molding the product and its processing, they significantly reduce the quality of finished products.

Glass defects include the following. Gas inclusions appear due to insufficient clarification of the glass mass.

These include midge and bladder defects. Turbid and squeezing bubbles in the product are not allowed.

Swiel, schlier are transparent inclusions that differ from the main mass of glass in chemical composition or physical properties. The striae are filiform, hairy, in the form of knots and bundles.

Crystalline inclusions have a crystalline structure (white) glass particles.

Workout defects are formed during the molding of glass products.

The variation in thickness in the walls and bottom of the product is the result of the uneven distribution of glass mass during the production of the product.

Chips, chips - damage with a conchoidal structure, formed as a result of breaking off a piece of glass during mechanical action.

Scree - small chips.

Forged - unevenness, manifested as a fine waviness of the surface.

Wrinkles are irregularities that appear as ripples on the surface.

A fold is an uneven surface of a pocket-shaped shape.

Curvature, folds and wrinkles on products are not allowed.

Defects in processing and decoration of products are remelting of the edge, asymmetry of patterns, under-finishing and translations on products (allowed), breaks, blockage of the diamond edge, blots, fading of paints and films, swelling, cracking, streaks on products are not allowed, as they sharply reduce aesthetic and hygienic properties of products. The total number of permissible defects in terms of appearance in one product should be no more than 2 - for small ones, 3 - for medium ones and 4 - for large ones. For especially large products, the total number of permissible defects that do not spoil the presentation is not regulated.

For crystal products, the total number of permissible defects in terms of appearance should not exceed for grade 1 for small items - 2, for medium - 3 and for large - 4, and for grade 2, respectively: 3, 4 and 5.

Marking, packaging, transportation and storage of glass goods. Blown products are marked with a paper label, which is pasted on the product, indicating the manufacturer, trademark, GOST, drawing number, processing group.

Pressed and molded products are marked during the production process. The marking includes the manufacturer's name or trademark.

Glass products are packed in cardboard or corrugated containers with nests or in bags made of wrapping paper or shrink film. Blown products when packed in bags must be pre-wrapped in paper, lined with shavings or other materials. Glasses, glasses and other small and medium-sized products are wrapped in paper in pairs, laying the paper between the bottoms of the products. Complete products are placed in one box or one package. Souvenir and gift items are not wrapped in paper, but placed in specially designed boxes. Paper bags tied with twine have a glued label indicating: trademark or name of the manufacturer; product name; drawing number or processing group;

the number of products in a packaging unit (for group packaging); number of controller and packer; packing date; standard designation.

Glass products are transported by rail in clean covered wagons or containers, on which the plant puts a handling sign and the inscription: “Do not turn over the top!”, “Caution, fragile!”. When placing glass products in wagons or containers, boxes and packages are shifted with packaging materials through two rows tightly, without gaps. Products that are shipped to the Far North and other remote areas must be packaged in accordance with special requirements established by standards.

Glass products are stored indoors, protected from the influence of atmospheric precipitation. When placing products in a warehouse, heavy products are recommended to be placed on the lower shelves located at a height of 15-20 cm from the floor, and lighter products on the upper ones.

Sheet glass materials. The raw materials for the production of window glass are: quartz sand, limestone, soda, sodium sulfate, dolomite, feldspar, etc. Window glass is made on vertical and horizontal stretching machines using boat and non-boat methods. This glass is produced in the form of sheets with dimensions of 250x250 to 1620x2200 mm with a thickness of 2; 3; 4; 5 and 6 mm. Used for glazing windows and doors.

Polished glass is produced by horizontal rolling, followed by grinding and polishing of surfaces. The maximum dimensions of polished glass are 4 450x2 950 mm with a thickness of 7.5 mm and 2 950x2 950 mm with a thickness of 6.5 mm. When glass is obtained by the floating belt method, there is no need for its mechanical processing (grinding and polishing). Polished glass is used for shop windows, mirrors, car windows, etc.

Polished glass is produced in three types, depending on the purpose for which it is intended:

UA - for the production of mirrors;

UUA - for glazing means of transport;

UUU - for glazing window openings of residential and public buildings and shop windows.

Patterned glass is sheet glass that has been patterned on the surface to partially or completely diffuse light and create a decorative effect.

Patterned glass is produced by continuously rolling a strip between two rolls, one of which is engraved with a pattern. Depending on the relief of the pattern, visibility through the glass can be partially or completely excluded and light transmission is preserved. These properties of patterned glass make it possible to widely use it for glazing window blocks and door panels in industrial and residential premises, for finishing lobbies, stairwells of public and administrative buildings, shops, covered verandas, etc. Patterned glass is produced in sheets with a thickness of 4 ... 6 mm, sheet dimensions are negotiated with the customer, but the maximum dimensions are 1,600x3,600 mm.

Armored glass - sheet glass having a metal mesh inside the glass. Armored glass is produced by the method of continuous horizontal rolling of a glass strip, during which a metal mesh is pressed into it, which does not allow the glass to crumble upon impact and when exposed to high temperatures. In case of fire, glass can prevent the spread of fire and smoke in the premises. Wired glass can have a smooth, wrought or patterned surface. The dimensions of the reinforced glass along the length are 1200 ... 2000 mm, along the width - 400 ... 1500 mm with a thickness of 6.5 mm. It is used for glazing skylights, window sashes, door panels, partitions, translucent shades, stair railings, balconies, etc.

Heat-absorbing glass is used for glazing window frames and skylights to reduce the penetration of solar radiation into the premises. The glass has a light blue and bluish-greenish color, which almost does not distort the color of the object viewed through it. The dimensions are identical to those of window glass.

Heat-shielding glass is designed to protect against thermal radiation from the solar spectrum. Unlike in-mass dyed heat-absorbing glass, heat-shielding glass is an ordinary window glass, on the surface of which a transparent film is applied. The film has a color from gray-smoky to blue-violet. The color intensity can also be adjusted by the layer thickness, which varies within 0.3 ... 1 micron. The light transmission of light-protective glass is set within a wide range (30 ... 70%), regardless of the thickness of the glass.

Heat-reflective glass removes heat losses through window openings and other types of translucent barriers in industrial, public and residential buildings, greenhouses, greenhouses, and also protects from thermal radiation received by technical light sources.

Applying a reflective film to the glass does not practically change the transparency of the glass with respect to solar radiation, but significantly reduces its ability to absorb long-wave radiation and, accordingly, its emissivity due to increased reflection. The latter can reach 60...80% for infrared radiation. The degree of blackness of such glass is reduced by more than 2 times. Such glass is thermally insulating.

Colored glass can be produced in different ways and have different purposes. Colored overlay glass, produced by the vertical drawing method, can be transparent and opaque. In addition, to obtain colored and tinted building glass, films of various chemical compositions are used.

Orange glass blocks ultraviolet radiation and can be used for glazing archives, libraries, and other rooms that need to be protected from the damaging effects of ultraviolet rays. Transparent (green, yellow, red, blue) glass is used as signal glass.

Shatterproof three-layer glass "Triplex" is a three-layer glass consisting of two sheets firmly connected by a transparent elastic polymer gasket between them - polyvinyl butyral or butafol (polyvinyl butyral copolymers) film. Due to the combination of fragile glass with an elastic gasket, "Triplex" does not give flying fragments when destroyed by impacts. All fragments of cracked glass are firmly held on the internal elastic lining, so the use of Triplex glass eliminates the possibility of injury from fragments. The maximum dimensions of sheets of shatterproof three-layer glass are 1,200 mm in length, 600 mm in width, with a thickness of 4.5 to 6.5 mm. Triplex glass is used for car glazing.

Tempered sheet glass is subjected to a special heat treatment - hardening by heating in electric furnaces (at a temperature of 650 ... 670 ° C) followed by rapid cooling with cold air on a blown grate.

As a result of tempering, the outer layers of the glass are strongly compressed, while the inner layers are stretched, which creates a uniform distribution of stress in the glass, which provides the glass with high mechanical strength and thermal stability. Tempered sheet glass breaks up into small fragments of a rounded shape, without sharp cutting edges; fragments can be held together. Tempered glass is durable and practically does not change its properties under operating conditions.

The dimensions of tempered glass sheets do not exceed 1,200 mm in length and 600 mm in width (with a thickness of 4.5...6.5 mm). Cutting, edging glass sheets, drilling holes must precede tempering, since tempered glass breaks into small fragments during these operations. Tempered glass is widely used in various fields of industry and construction, for glazing cars, aircraft, trolleybuses, electric locomotives, excavator cabins; for glazing buildings of hospitals, schools and other public and industrial buildings.

Hollow glass building blocks have a hermetically sealed cavity formed as a result of welding of two pressed semi-blocks. Glass blocks are produced colorless and colored and have the following overall dimensions: 194x194x60 mm; 194x194x98mm; 224x224x80mm; 224x224x98 mm.

Glass blocks are used to fill light openings in external walls and to create translucent partitions. They create soft diffused lighting, increase the depth of natural light. Fences made of glass blocks are fire-resistant, hermetic, have a high heat and sound insulation ability.

Profile glass is produced on production lines for continuous rolling of glass tape by molding it with special devices into products of box and channel sections. It is used to fill light openings, as well as for the construction of external walls and internal partitions that do not bear loads. Profile glass creates soft diffused lighting inside buildings. Its use significantly saves the consumption of materials required for the installation of partitions.

To seal and seal the joints between the elements of profiled glass, different mastics, porous rubber and polyvinyl chloride sealing profiles are used.

In order to prevent moisture and dust from penetrating into the cavity of the profile glass of box-shaped section, as well as to protect the profile glass during transportation, the ends are hermetically sealed with end nozzles.

Decoration on glass can be applied during the manufacturing process of the product (in a hot state) and on finished products (in a cold state).

1. Hot decoration: colored glass products, products with coloring. Crackle section. When blowing, the glass blower places the jar in cold water, it is covered with a network of cracks. The product is placed in an oven, the cracks are melted, then blowing is continued; glassware with reliefs, etc.

2. Decoration when cold.

mechanical method. Abrasive materials are applied to glass products with a matte tape, numbered grinding, diamond cutting, engraving.

Number grinding - simple matte or transparent drawings, they are numbered.

Diamond face - patterns formed by two-, three-sided slots (grooves) using an abrasive wheel. Crystal products are decorated with a diamond facet.

Chemical method. Jewelry is applied by etching with hydrofluoric acid. There is simple, complex and deep artistic etching.

Decoration is applied with paints: painting, gold decoration (antennae - 1 mm, layering - up to 3 mm, ribbon - 4-10 mm), decalmania (using decals), decoration with chandeliers (paints based on non-ferrous metal salts), etc.

1 - matte tape; 2, 3, 4 - numbered grinding; 5, 6 - simple etching; 7, 8 - pantographic etching; 9 - artistic etching; 10, 11 - engraving; 12 - wide straight edge; 13 - painting; 14 - decoration with glass cloth; 15, 16, 17, 18.19 - diamond cut

Give a description of the range of glass products for their intended purpose, depending on the type of glass, the method of molding, the shape, the size of the package and other features. List the rules for glassware care.

The range of glass products is subdivided according to the composition of the glass mass, production method, purpose, types, styles, sizes and decoration methods.

The size of plates, saucers is determined by the upper diameter, in mm; glasses and other hollow products by capacity, in cm3 or in l; high products (vases) - in height, in mm.

Tableware (sorted glass).

The range of tableware is divided by functional purpose:

Products for eating and drinking; this group includes glasses, goblets, glasses, glasses, wine glasses, plates, cups, etc.;

Products for serving food and drinks - bowls, dishes, vases, decanters, salt shakers, sugar bowls, herring bowls, salad bowls, butter dishes, etc.

Menazhnitsa - dishes with sections (3-5) for serving several types of cold appetizers.

Utensils for short-term storage of food: cheese caps, jugs, tea caddies.

Other products (trays, ashtrays, etc.), appliances and sets.

Crystal products are produced by blowing and pressing. The assortment of crystal tableware includes items for table setting, vases, salad bowls, etc. Crystal items can be in a metal frame made of silver, cupronickel, nickel silver.

Household and kitchen utensils.

Household utensils include canning jars, thermoses, thermos flasks, household siphons, etc.

Cookware is designed for cooking, made of heat-resistant glass by pressing with subsequent hardening. The range of kitchen utensils includes pots, braziers, frying pans, etc.

Artistic products are made from high quality glass and crystal. These include small sculptures, vases, decorative dishes, toiletry (tray for toiletries, powder boxes, etc.).

Glass products are marked with a brand, which indicates the name of the manufacturer, trademark, standard number, cutting group, article, on crystal products - the content of lead and barium oxides in percent.

Glass products with the inscription "Caution, glass!", "Up" are transported.

Glass products cannot be stored for a long time in damp rooms, as the transparency of the glass is partially lost, a white coating may form on the surface.

Glass processing operations. publishing house is divided into thermal. and tech.

To thermal ways obr-ki stekloizd th relation. their annealing and hardening.

During rapid cooling of heated glass, its outer layers cool faster than the inner layers due to the poor thermal conductivity of the glass. In materials that conduct heat well, the outer and inner layers cool down practically. at the same time, so the temperature difference m / they have practical. is absent.

As a result of uneven cooling of the inner and outer layers in the glass arose. compressive and tensile stresses. When the cooling process ends and the temperature of the various glass layers equalizes, the stresses that have arisen at the moment of cooling either remain (these are residual stresses) or disappear (these are temporary stresses).

Temporary stresses with a significant value cause the immediate destruction of the publication, which means that residual stresses can cause both the immediate destruction of the publication and its destruction after a certain time.

The greater the cooling rate and the thicker (massive) the product, the more significant will be the temperature difference between the various layers of the product and the more residual stresses will occur in the product.

The process of thermal processing, at which residual stresses in glass. ed and weakened to the norm, ensuring its long and reliable operation, called annealing . Annealing consists in heating products to a temperature of practical. the beginning of softening and their very slow cooling.

Operation hardening consists in heating the publishing house to a certain temperature, which is frozen. from the island of glass and form of publishing, and rapid cooling by definition. regime. As a result, significant internal stresses are distributed in the ed. and evenly and counteract the dr. on the ed. mechanical. loads.

To tech. processing relative: chipping off the cap or its oxygen cut in blown products, grinding and heating the edges, fire polishing of the product, grinding corks to the necks of decanters, etc.

After breaking off the cap, the edge of the blown product remains sharp, so it is cut by grinding on circles using fine-grained sand as an abrasive material. For thin-walled articles, the edges are heated under the edge of gas burners. Under high temperature, the glass softens, and due to the forces of surface tension, the edges of the edges are rounded off.

Fire polishing pov-sti is most often used. for pressed ed., on the surface of k-x m. various defects caused by the contact of the glass mass during the molding process with the walls of the mold. As a result, those improved externally. type of product, and increase its strength.

27. Decoration of glass products

Glass due to its optical. sv-in - transparency and brilliance, yavl. scrap material with high artistic merit. To increase the level of aesthetic. St. in glass. publishers, with their production, use various methods of jewelry, which are traditionally called. "cuts".

Decorations on the product can be applied directly in the molding process (in the hot state) and / or on the finished product (in the cold state). Products made of glass without cuttings are called products "in smooth" or simply "smooth".

Decorations applied to products in a hot state. Colored glass products obtained by adding various dyes to the composition of the glass mixture. These publications are most often smooth, without additional cuts. The color of the glass depends on its content and the concentration of the dye.

Products "with color" - this is a multilayer (most often two-layer) glass. In this case, the inner layer of glass is usually colorless, and the outer layer is made of colored glass.

Jewelry "marbled" and "malachite" on the outside. look like these stones. Accordingly, this is a muted glass with multi-colored threads, spots and green glass with veins of darker glass. These cuts are obtained by covering the workpiece with colored chips or by forming a product from a pre-but unevenly mixed glass mass of the main. colors with the addition of colored glass melt.

Cutting "crackle", which has the form of a network of cracks in the thickness of the glass, is obtained by lowering the workpiece into cold water, as a result of which, it is covered with a network of small cracks.

Decoration "decorative bubbles" is applied by sprinkling the workpiece with a mixture, after which blowing is carried out in a clean form.

Decorations "colored ribbon" and colored thread "are obtained by wrapping a workpiece with a thread of colored glass.

By rolling the workpiece on broken colored glass, a “colored spot” cut is obtained. Approximately the same way they get the embankment decoration. In this case, the molded product is rolled over colored glass chips, which stick to it.

Decoration "roller" is obtained by blowing the product into a shape with a wavy surface.

Cutting "optical pattern" is applied in two stages. First, the billet is blown in a draft form, which they longitudinal edges, and then the product is blown in a clean mold with smooth walls. As a result, a product with a smooth outer surface appears faceted.

Decorations with luster paints received. by applying to the surface of the ed. organic. Comm. th metals in organic. solv-lyakh with the subsequent. firing.

In addition to the cuts listed above, decorations such as sticks, cuts with fiberglass and fiberglass, irrigation, etc., can be applied in a hot state.

Decoration of products The artistic value of glassware depends on the type and color of the glass, the method of production, the thickness of the walls, the shape of the product, as well as the quality and nature of the decoration. Therefore, special attention is paid to the decoration of glass products and the mechanization of decoration processes. All methods of decorating glassware can be divided into two groups: decorations applied during the molding process (in a hot state); decorations applied to finished products (cold).

Crackle - a network of thin cracks on the glazed surface of glass products. Crackle is created for a decorative effect, using discrepancies in the coefficients of expansion of the shard and glaze during firing. It is created in the case when the workpiece is dipped in cold water, and then heated in an oven. Filigree decoration (Venetian thread) manual method, complex, but very effective. The dart is placed in a metal mold, then the bullet is inflated in it. The dart sticks to the glass, its ends are broken off and glass mass is collected on the workpiece, which is inflated when heated. The dart is fused into the workpiece. The billet is heated and further blowing without a mold is carried out. When the workpiece is rotated, the glass threads are arranged in spirals.

Marble decoration. A “jar” made of milky glass is covered with a colored embankment, then colorless glass is collected on it and blown into shape. Thus, the products consist of two layers of glass (milky and transparent), between which there are small inclusions of colored glasses. Decoration "marbled" is also obtained by mixing milk and colored glass; with weak stirring, marble-like veins are formed. A kind of decoration "marbled" is the decoration with stains in the form of interspersed with colored glass. Bulk decoration fine-grained glass coating in the form of stripes, colored or colorless. Get it by rolling a heated billet on a cast-iron tile sprinkled with crushed sifted glass; after heating, the product is inflated. The embankment is used to decorate wine utensils, small flower vases and other decorative items. The surface of the decoration is rough to the touch.

Zinc sulfide glass is used to produce decorative items and appliances that have a filigree effect in the form of spots, stripes, threads resembling a “Venetian thread”. To do this, a zinc sulfide glass bullet is blown in a draft form from metal plates; when the glass comes in contact with the plates, local cooling occurs and strips of muted glass are formed, which differ in color from the open areas of the product. Colored sulfide glass is also decorated with ayasur stucco "lace" made of colorless glass, "cut" glass ribbon, etc. Decoration with bubbles. The "jar" is blown in a draft form with hollow spikes or needles through which air is supplied. As a result of such processing, depressions filled with air are formed in the walls of the product. Glass mass is again collected on the bullet and 4 is again inflated. The glass mass connects with the convex parts of the bullet, but does not fall into the recesses, in which air remains and bubbles form. The decoration is spectacular, especially in colored and applied glass. It is used for thick-walled products.

Colored glass products made from various types of colored glass often have a smooth surface without additional decorations. A particularly good color is obtained when glass and crystal are stained with oxides of rare earth metals. Apply deep coloring and halftone, creating a beautiful color effect. Products are made of glass of one and several colors, from colored glass in combination with colorless. In complete products, polychrome coloring is used; various items are made in several colors. Products with a color (from applied glass) come with one, rayase with two or more colors. A “jar” is blown out of colored glass in the form of a double-walled funnel, a “jar” of colorless glass is introduced into it and it is blown up until it fuses with colored glass. The outer wall of the funnel is moistened with water and beaten off. Products are appropriately modified and decorated with a diamond facet, engraving, etc. A colorless pattern is formed on a colored background. Smooth products are often made with an internal overlay of colored glass.

Decoration in the way of iridescence creates the effect of colored rainbow overflows on the glass. The product is brought into a muffle furnace, where a liquid mixture or vapors of tin chloride and titanium tetrachloride with salts of strontium, barium, lead, bismuth are introduced through a tube. Salts, evaporating, form iridescent films on the glass surface (pure stannous chloride creates a colorless film, with the addition of strontium and barium salts, a film with blue and reddish tints is obtained). It is used to decorate smooth products. Decorating with aerosols is an effective way to decorate glass. The product, which has not yet cooled down after production, is treated with a spray gun with solutions of salts of various metals and easily evaporating acids (hydrochloric, nitric, etc.). After processing, the products are sent for annealing. A colored film of metal oxides forms on the glass surface.

Decorations of finished products are made by mechanical and chemical methods, paints (painting, silk-screen printing, decalcomania, etc.) and metal films. mechanical methods. These methods apply such decorations as matte tape, sandblasting, decorative grinding (numbered, diamond and straight wide edge), engraving.

Matte ribbon is the simplest decoration in the form of a circular strip. It is obtained by processing glass with a water-sand mixture. The product is put on a rotating spindle with a rubber or wooden tip. A steel plate is pressed against the product at an angle, under which sand and water are supplied. The grains of sand pressed against the plate scratch the glass, leaving a pattern. Glasses are mainly decorated in this way. Sandblasting is carried out with a jet of sand, which is fed through a stencil with holes applied to the product. In this way, various patterns of any complexity are quickly obtained (plot, ornamental, stylized, etc.). The surface of the product can be matte, velvety, coarse-grained, sparkling. The method is also used in various combinations with other decorations. Sandblast matting of the entire surface of the product is possible. A mechanized vacuum-sandblasting decoration method has been developed, which produces matte complex images that are close to highly artistic engraving.

Engraving, or drawing, decoration of glass products with surface light matte or transparent patterns. Drawings are applied on special machines with a copper or alundum circle using emery micropowder moistened with machine oil or kerosene and applied to the circle. The haze of the pattern varies depending on the grit size of the abrasive and the depth of the removed surface. Some drawings are polished with powdered tin (light engraving). The engraving is applied on colorless glass, colored glass, with color and on crystal in the form of flowers, leaves, fruits, landscapes, portraits and even whole compositions. The most common type of decorative polishing of products, the diamond edge creates a play of light, reminiscent of the brilliance of a diamond. It has the appearance of deep dihedral cuts and spherical pits, forming geometric patterns in various combinations in the form of stars, rays, nets, polyhedra, arcs, etc. Some elements of the diamond facet pattern have conventional names: “stones”, polished polyhedra, “bushes” beams of rays, “spider line” star-shaped narrow slots, “cell” pattern in the form of cells, etc. The diamond face is made on the SAG-1M machine, etc. To speed up processing, the patterns on the products are sometimes pre-pressed in the form. After drawing, the drawings are subjected to chemical polishing.

Number polishing is a simple matte and transparent drawings in the form of round and oval pits, lines, simplified drawings of flowers, leaves, berries. They are used to decorate inexpensive products made of colorless glass (tea glasses, decanters for water, wine, etc.). Most numbered sanding patterns are not polished. Decorative polishing of glass products, drawing in-depth drawings on glass or obtaining edges on it. It is produced by abrasive single or multi-blade wheels made of carborundum and electrocorundum on machine tools. In the process of grinding, the master touches the walls of the product to a sharply honed rotating circle. After grinding, the matte pattern is polished on wooden or felt wheels with a pumice-water emulsion and crocus or sea grass brushes.

Chemical methods of decorating glass Chemical methods. These include etching (simple, complex, deep). Glass etching relies on the ability of hydrofluoric acid to break down glass by reacting with silicates to form silicon fluoride gas. For etching, a 40% solution of hydrogen fluoride in water is used. Distinguish matte and light etching. Matte etching is carried out with a mixture of hydrofluoric acid, sodium sulfate and hydrochloric acid; insoluble salts fall on the surface of the glass, so the pattern is opaque. Light etching is carried out with a mixture of hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids; the picture is transparent. According to the complexity and depth of the applied pattern, simple (guilloche), complex (pantographic) and deep artistic etching are distinguished.

Deep etching, or artistic, is reproduced on overlay glass manually. The product is covered with mastic according to the pattern, open areas are treated in several steps with hydrofluoric acid. The uneven thickness of the layer of colored glass creates color effects. For greater expressiveness of the pattern, the inner surface of the product is matted. Simple and complex etching is carried out as follows: the product is covered with a mastic consisting of wax, paraffin, rosin and turpentine, then a pattern is drawn on it using thin needles, after which the exposed glass surface is etched in a hydrofluoric acid bath. Simple etching is characterized by a simple pattern, a more complex pattern is applied on pantographic machines.

Decalcomania (decal) is a method of repeatedly drawing a pattern on glass. A drawing made on paper with heat-resistant and acid-resistant silicate paints is transferred to the product and fixed by firing. The decal makes it possible to apply thematic drawings on glass, which is especially convenient for decorating souvenirs. Silk-screen printing is a new promising economical method of applying a pattern using semi-automatic machines. The drawing is applied to the product through a thin nylon mesh (gold through nylon). The grid is covered with a special lacquer film that forms a stencil with holes. A frame with a mesh is applied to the product, paint is applied through the open sections of the mesh and rolled with a rubber roller; the resulting pattern is fixed by firing. Multi-color patterns are applied through several grids. The drawing is obtained with varying degrees of complexity, juicy, bright and embossed; conveys fine lines and strokes well.

Picturesque drawings are applied with silicate (muffle) paints, which are mixtures of fusible glasses (fluxes) with dyes (chromium oxide, copper, cobalt, etc.), mixed with turpentine or other binders. The drawing is fixed by muffle firing at a temperature of ° C. Silicate paints are transparent, they include fusible fluxes, and opaque (enamels) containing fillers and giving muffled tones. Decorations applied with transparent paints resemble glass with a color. Drawings are applied with a brush, pen, spray gun through a stencil, stamp (manually and semi-automatically) in the form of ornaments, stylized flowers, line drawings. To decorate products of mass demand (glasses, glasses, etc.), a layering (a strip with a width of 13 mm or more), a mustache (up to 1 mm), and a tape (over 3 mm) are applied on semiautomatic devices. Drawings with gold are applied in the same way as drawings with paint. Before this, the product is washed with soda water, wiped with a cloth. A 12% solution of chlorine gold is used, as well as gold resinate, pasty and gold leaf. During muffle firing, gold is fused into glass. There is a simple decoration with gold (layering, antennae, ribbons, ornaments); cutting relief drawings with gold on enamel; processing with gold on etched and matted surfaces (chased gold), etc. Gold drawings are often combined with other diamond cuts, engraving.

Photo printing on glass is used to apply complex drawings (portraits, landscapes). Cementation (glass staining) is based on the ability of dyes to diffuse into glass when heated to form a colored layer. Copper mordant gives red color, silver yellow. The colloidal dye is mixed with a filler (ocher, iron oxide) and a binder (gum arabic, dextrin) and applied to the product, which is then fired.