The currently most significant group of factors that intensively change the environment is directly related to the versatile human activity.

Human development on the planet has always been associated with environmental impact, but today this process has accelerated significantly.

Anthropogenic factors include any impact (both direct and indirect) of a person on the environment - organisms, biogeocenoses, landscapes,.

By reshaping nature and adapting it to his needs, man changes the habitat of animals and plants, thereby influencing their life. The impact can be direct, indirect and accidental.

Direct impact directed directly at living organisms. For example, unsustainable fishing and hunting have drastically reduced the number of species. The growing strength and accelerated pace of human change in nature necessitate its protection.

Indirect Impact is carried out by changing the landscapes, climate, physical condition and chemistry of the atmosphere and water bodies, the structure of the earth's surface, soils, vegetation and wildlife. A person consciously and unconsciously exterminates or displaces some species of plants and animals, spreads others or creates favorable conditions for them. For cultivated plants and domestic animals, man has created a largely new environment, multiplying the productivity of developed lands. But this ruled out the possibility of the existence of many wild species.

In fairness, it should be said that many species of animals and plants disappeared from the face of the Earth even without human intervention. Each species, like an individual organism, has its own youth, flowering, old age and death - a natural process. But in nature, this happens slowly, and usually leaving species have time to be replaced by new ones, more adapted to living conditions. Man, on the other hand, accelerated the process of extinction to such a pace that evolution gave way to revolutionary, irreversible transformations.

Environmental environmental factors by origin are divided into:

1. Biotic.

2. Abiotic.

3. Anthropogenic.

Changes in the natural environment that have occurred as a result of economic and other human activities are due to anthropogenic factors. Trying to remake nature, in order to adapt it to his needs, man transforms the natural habitat of living organisms, influencing their lives.

Anthropogenic factors include the following types:

1. Chemical.

2. Physical.

3. Biological.

4. Social.

Chemical anthropogenic factors include the use of mineral fertilizers and toxic chemicals for the cultivation of fields, as well as the pollution of all earthly shells by transport and industrial waste. Physical factors include the use of nuclear energy, increased levels of noise and vibration as a result of human activities, in particular when using a variety of vehicles. Biological factors are food. They also include organisms that can inhabit the human body or those for which a person is potentially food. Social factors are determined by the coexistence of people in society and their relationships.

Human impact on the environment can be direct, indirect and complex. The direct influence of anthropogenic factors is carried out with a strong short-term impact of any of them. For example, when arranging a highway or laying railway tracks through a forest, seasonal commercial hunting in a certain area, etc. Indirect impact is manifested by a change in natural landscapes due to human economic activity of low intensity over a long period of time. At the same time, the climate, the physical and chemical composition of water bodies are affected, the structure of soils, the structure of the Earth's surface, and the composition of fauna and flora change. This happens, for example, during the construction of a metallurgical plant near the railway without the use of the necessary treatment facilities, which leads to pollution of the environment with liquid and gaseous waste. In the future, trees in the nearby area die, animals are threatened with heavy metal poisoning, etc. The complex impact of direct and indirect factors entails the gradual appearance of pronounced changes in the environment, which may be due to rapid population growth, an increase in the number of livestock and animals living near human habitation (rats, cockroaches, crows, etc.), plowing of new lands, the ingress of harmful impurities into water bodies, etc. In such a situation, only those living organisms that are able to adapt to the new conditions of existence can survive in the changed landscape.

In the 20th and 11th centuries, anthropogenic factors have become of great importance in changing climatic conditions, the structure of soils and the composition of atmospheric air, salt and fresh water bodies, in reducing the area of ​​​​forests, and the extinction of many representatives of the flora and fauna.

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Anthropogenic factors: examples. What is the anthropogenic factor?

The scale of human activity in the last few hundred years has increased immeasurably, which means that new anthropogenic factors have appeared. Examples of the impact, the place and role of humanity in changing the environment - all this later in the article.

What is a living environment?

Part of the nature of the Earth in which organisms live is their habitat. The resulting relationships, lifestyle, productivity, number of creatures are studied by ecology. Allocate the main components of nature: soil, water and air. There are organisms that are adapted to living in one or three environments, such as coastal plants.

Separate elements interacting with living beings and among themselves are ecological factors. Each of them is irreplaceable. But in recent decades, anthropogenic factors have acquired planetary significance. Although not enough attention was paid to the influence of society on nature half a century ago, 150 years ago the science of ecology itself was in its infancy.

What are environmental factors?

The conditions of the natural environment can be very diverse: space, information, energy, chemical, climatic. Any natural components of physical, chemical or biological origin are environmental factors. They directly or indirectly affect a separate biological individual, population, the entire biocenosis. There are no less phenomena associated with human activity, for example, the anxiety factor. Many anthropogenic factors influence the vital activity of organisms, the state of biocenoses and the geographical envelope. Examples:

• an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere leads to climate change;
• monoculture in agriculture causes outbreaks of individual pests;
• fires lead to a change in the plant community;
• deforestation and the construction of hydroelectric power plants change the regime of rivers.

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What are environmental factors?

Conditions that affect living organisms and their habitats can be classified into one of three groups according to their properties:

• inorganic or abiotic factors (solar radiation, air, temperature, water, wind, salinity);
• biotic conditions that are associated with the cohabitation of microorganisms, animals, plants that affect each other, inanimate nature;
• anthropogenic environmental factors - the cumulative impact of the Earth's population on nature.

All of these groups are important. Every environmental factor is irreplaceable. For example, an abundance of water does not make up for the amount of mineral elements and light necessary for plant nutrition.

What is the anthropogenic factor?

The main sciences that study the environment are global ecology, human ecology and nature conservation. They are based on the data of theoretical ecology, widely use the concept of "anthropogenic factors". Anthropos in Greek means "man", genos is translated as "origin". The word "factor" comes from the Latin factor ("doing, producing"). This is the name of the conditions that affect the processes, their driving force.

Any human impact on living organisms, the entire environment are anthropogenic factors. There are both positive and negative examples. There are cases of favorable changes in nature in connection with conservation activities. But more often society has a negative, sometimes destructive effect on the biosphere.

The place and role of the anthropogenic factor in changing the face of the Earth

Any type of economic activity of the population affects the links between living organisms and the natural habitat, often leads to their violation. In place of natural complexes and landscapes, anthropogenic ones arise:

• fields, orchards and orchards;
• reservoirs, ponds, canals;
• parks, forest belts;
• cultural pastures.

The similarities of natural complexes created by man are further influenced by anthropogenic, biotic and abiotic factors of the environment. Examples: the formation of deserts - on agricultural plantations; overgrowing of ponds.

How does man influence nature?

Mankind, a part of the Earth's biosphere, was completely dependent on the surrounding natural conditions for a long period. With the development of the nervous system, in particular the brain, thanks to the improvement of labor tools, man himself became a factor in evolutionary and other processes on Earth. First of all, we must mention the mastery of mechanical, electrical and atomic energy. As a result, the upper part of the earth's crust has changed significantly, and the biogenic migration of atoms has increased.

All the diversity of society's impact on the environment is anthropogenic factors. Examples of negative influence:

• reduction of mineral reserves;
• deforestation;
• soil pollution;
• hunting and fishing;
• extermination of wild species.

The positive impact of man on the biosphere is associated with environmental protection measures. Reforestation and afforestation, landscaping and improvement of settlements, acclimatization of animals (mammals, birds, fish) are being carried out.

What is being done to improve the relationship between man and the biosphere?

The above examples of anthropogenic environmental factors, human intervention in nature indicate that the impact can be positive and negative. These characteristics are conditional, because a positive influence under changed conditions often becomes its opposite, i.e., acquires a negative connotation. The activities of the population often do harm to nature than good. This fact is explained by the violation of natural laws that have been in force for millions of years.

Back in 1971, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) approved the International Biological Program called "Man and the Biosphere". Its main task was to study and prevent adverse changes in the environment. In recent years, adult and children's environmental organizations, scientific institutions are very concerned about the conservation of biological diversity.

How to improve environmental health?

We found out what the anthropogenic factor is in ecology, biology, geography and other sciences. It should be noted that the well-being of human society, the life of present and future generations of people depend on the quality and degree of influence of economic activity on the environment. It is necessary to reduce the environmental risk associated with the ever-increasing negative role of anthropogenic factors.

According to the researchers, even the conservation of biological diversity is not enough to ensure the health of the environment. It can be unfavorable for human life with its former biodiversity, but strong radiation, chemical and other types of pollution.

There is an obvious connection between the health of nature, man and the degree of influence of anthropogenic factors. To reduce their negative impact, it is necessary to form a new attitude towards the environment, responsibility for the prosperous existence of wildlife and the conservation of biodiversity.

Anthropogenic factors, their influence on organisms.

Anthropogenic factors- these are forms of human activity that affect living organisms and the conditions of their habitat: felling, plowing, irrigation, grazing, construction of reservoirs, water, oil and gas pipelines, laying roads, power lines, etc. The impact of human activity on living organisms and their environmental conditions habitats can be direct and indirect. For example, when cutting down trees in the forest during timber harvesting, it has a direct impact on the cut down trees (felling, debranching, sawing, removal, etc.) and at the same time has an indirect impact on the plants of the tree canopy, changing the conditions of their habitat: lighting, temperature, air circulation, etc. Due to changes in environmental conditions, shade-loving plants and all organisms associated with them will no longer be able to live and develop in the cutting area. Among the abiotic factors, there are climatic (lighting, temperature, humidity, wind, pressure, etc.) and hydrographic (water, current, salinity, stagnant flow, etc.) factors.

Factors affecting organisms and their habitat conditions change during the day, season and year (temperature, rainfall, lighting, etc.). Therefore, they distinguish regularly changing and arising spontaneously ( unexpected) factors. Regularly changing factors are called periodic factors. These include the change of day and night, seasons, tides, etc. Living organisms have adapted to the effects of these factors as a result of long evolution. Factors that arise spontaneously are called non-periodic. These include volcanic eruption, floods, fires, mudflows, predator attack on prey, etc. Living organisms are not adapted to the impact of non-periodic factors and do not have any adaptations. Therefore, they lead to death, injury and disease of living organisms, destroy their habitats.

A person often uses non-periodic factors to his advantage. For example, in order to improve the regeneration of the herbage of pastures and hayfields, he arranges a fall in the spring, i.e. sets fire to old vegetation; using pesticides and herbicides destroys pests of agricultural crops, weeds of fields and gardens, destroys pathogens, bacteria and invertebrates, etc.

A set of factors of the same kind constitutes the upper level of concepts. The lower level of concepts is associated with the knowledge of individual environmental factors (Table 3).

Table 3 - Levels of the concept of "environmental factor"

Despite the wide variety of environmental factors, a number of general patterns can be identified in the nature of their impact on organisms and in the responses of living beings.

Law of Optimum. Each factor has only certain limits of positive influence on organisms. The beneficial effect is called zone of optimum ecological factor or simply optimum for organisms of this species (Fig. 5).

Figure 5 - Dependence of the results of the environmental factor on its intensity

The stronger the deviation from the optimum, the more pronounced the inhibitory effect of this factor on organisms ( pessimum zone). The maximum and minimum tolerated values ​​of the factor are critical points, beyond which existence is no longer possible, death occurs. The endurance limits between critical points are called environmental valence living beings in relation to a specific environmental factor. The points that bound it, i.e. the maximum and minimum temperatures suitable for life are the limits of stability. Between the optimum zone and the limits of stability, the plant experiences increasing stress, i.e. we are talking about stress zones, or zones of oppression within the range of stability. As you move away from the optimum, eventually, upon reaching the limits of the organism's stability, its death occurs.

Species whose existence requires strictly defined environmental conditions, low-hardy species are called stenobiont(narrow ecological valence) , and those that are able to adapt to different environmental conditions are hardy - eurybiontic(broad ecological valency) (Fig. 6).

Figure 6 - Ecological plasticity of species (according to Yu. Odum, 1975)

Eurybiontic contributes to the wide distribution of species. Stenobiontness usually limits ranges.

The ratio of organisms to the fluctuations of one or another specific factor is expressed by adding the prefix eury- or stheno- to the name of the factor. For example, in relation to temperature, eury- and stenothermal organisms are distinguished, in relation to salt concentration - eury- and stenohaline, in relation to light - eury- and stenophotic, etc.

J. Liebig's law of the minimum. The German agronomist J. Liebig in 1870 was the first to establish that the crop (product) depends on the factor that is in the environment at a minimum, and formulating the law of the minimum, which says: “the substance that is at a minimum controls the crop and determines the size and stability last in time."

When formulating the Liebig law, he had in mind the limiting effect on plants of vital chemical elements present in their habitat in small and intermittent quantities. These elements are called trace elements. These include: copper, zinc, iron, boron, silicon, molybdenum, vanadium, cobalt, chlorine, iodine, sodium. Trace elements, like vitamins, act as catalysts, the chemical elements phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, which are required by organisms in a relatively high honor, are called macroelements. But, if these elements in the soil contain more than necessary for the normal life of organisms, then they are also limiting. Thus, micro- and macroelements in the habitat of living organisms should be contained as much as is necessary for their normal existence and vital activity. A change in the content of micro- and macroelements in the direction of decreasing or increasing from the required amount limits the existence of living organisms.

Environmental limiting factors determine the geographic range of a species. The nature of these factors may be different. Thus, the movement of a species to the north can be limited by a lack of heat, and to desert regions by a lack of moisture or too high temperatures. Biotic relations can also serve as a limiting factor for distribution, for example, the occupation of a given territory by a stronger competitor, or the lack of pollinators for plants.

W. Shelford's law of tolerance. Any organism in nature is able to endure the impact of periodic factors both in the direction of decrease and in the direction of their increase up to a certain limit for a certain time. Based on this ability of living organisms, the American zoologist W. Shelford in 1913 formulated the law of tolerance (from the Latin “tolerantica” - patience: the ability of an organism to endure the influence of environmental factors up to a certain limit), which reads: “The absence or impossibility of developing an ecosystem is determined not only by a lack (quantitatively or qualitatively), but also an excess of any of the factors (light, heat, water), the level of which may be close to the limits tolerated by this organism. These two limits: the ecological minimum and the ecological maximum, the impact of which a living organism can withstand, are called tolerance (tolerance) limits, for example, if a certain organism is able to live at temperatures from 30 ° C to - 30 ° C, then its tolerance limit lies within these limits. temperatures.

Eurobionts, due to their wide tolerance, or wide ecological amplitude, are widespread, more resistant to environmental factors, i.e., more resilient. Deviations of the influence of factors from the optimum depresses the living organism. Ecological valence in some organisms is narrow (for example, snow leopard, walnut, within the temperate zone), in others it is wide (for example, wolf, fox, hare, reed, dandelion, etc.).

After the discovery of this law, numerous studies were carried out, thanks to which the limits of existence for many plants and animals became known. One such example is the impact of air pollutants on the human body. At concentration values ​​of C years, a person dies, but irreversible changes in his body occur at much lower concentrations: C lim. Therefore, the true range of tolerance is determined precisely by these indicators. This means that they must be experimentally determined for each polluting or any harmful chemical compound, and not to exceed its content in a particular environment. In sanitary environmental protection, it is not the lower limits of resistance to harmful substances that are important, but the upper limits, because environmental pollution - this is an excess of the body's resistance. The task or condition is set: the actual concentration of the pollutant C fact should not exceed C lim. Fact< С лим. С ¢ лим является предельно допустимой концентрации С ПДК или ПДК.

Interaction of factors. The optimal zone and limits of endurance of organisms in relation to any environmental factor can be shifted depending on the strength and combination of other factors acting simultaneously. For example, heat is easier to bear in dry but not humid air. The threat of freezing is much higher in frost with strong winds than in calm weather . Thus, the same factor in combination with others has an unequal environmental impact. The effect of partial mutual substitution of factors is created. For example, wilting of plants can be stopped by both increasing the amount of moisture in the soil and lowering the air temperature, which reduces evaporation.

However, the mutual compensation of the action of environmental factors has certain limits, and it is impossible to completely replace one of them with another. The extreme lack of heat in the polar deserts cannot be compensated for either by an abundance of moisture or round-the-clock illumination. .

Groups of living organisms in relation to environmental factors:

Light or solar radiation. All living organisms need energy from outside to carry out life processes. Its main source is solar radiation, which accounts for about 99.9% of the total energy balance of the Earth. Albedo is the fraction of reflected light.

The most important processes occurring in plants and animals with the participation of light:

Photosynthesis. On average, 1-5% of the light falling on plants is used for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the source of energy for the rest of the food chain. Light is essential for the synthesis of chlorophyll. All adaptations of plants in relation to light are associated with this - leaf mosaic (Fig. 7), the distribution of algae in aquatic communities over water layers, etc.

According to the requirement for lighting conditions, it is customary to divide plants into the following ecological groups:

Light-loving or heliophytes- plants of open, constantly well-lit habitats. Their light adaptations are as follows - small leaves, often dissected, at noon can turn edge to the sun; leaves are thicker, may be covered with cuticle or waxy coating; cells of the epidermis and mesophyll are smaller, the palisade parenchyma is multilayered; internodes are short, etc.

Shade-loving or sciophytes- plants of the lower tiers of shady forests, caves and deep-sea plants; they do not tolerate strong light from direct sunlight. They can photosynthesize even in very low light; the leaves are dark green, large and thin; the palisade parenchyma is single-layered and is represented by larger cells; leaf mosaic is pronounced.

shade-tolerant or facultative heliophytes- can tolerate more or less shading, but grow well in the light; they are easier than other plants to rebuild under the influence of changing lighting conditions. This group includes forest and meadow grasses, shrubs. Adaptations are formed depending on the lighting conditions and can be rebuilt when the light regime changes (Fig. 8). An example is coniferous trees that have grown in open spaces and under the forest canopy.

transpiration- the process of evaporation of water by the leaves of plants to reduce the temperature. Approximately 75% of the solar radiation falling on plants is spent on the evaporation of water and thus enhances transpiration; this is important in connection with the problem of water conservation.

photoperiodism. It is important for synchronizing the vital activity and behavior of plants and animals (especially their reproduction) with the seasons. Phototropism and photonasts in plants are important for providing plants with sufficient light. Phototaxis in animals and unicellular plants is essential for finding a suitable habitat.

Vision in animals. One of the most important sensory functions. The concept of visible light is different for different animals. Rattlesnakes see in the infrared part of the spectrum; bees are closer to the ultraviolet region. In animals living in places where light does not penetrate, the eyes can be completely or partially reduced. Animals leading a nocturnal or twilight lifestyle do not distinguish colors well and see everything in black and white; in addition, in such animals, the size of the eyes is often hypertrophied. Light as a means of orientation plays an important role in the life of animals. Many birds during flights are guided with the help of vision by the sun or stars. Some insects, such as bees, have the same ability.

Other processes. Synthesis of vitamin D in humans. However, prolonged exposure to ultraviolet rays can cause tissue damage, especially in animals; in connection with this, protective devices have developed - pigmentation, behavioral avoidance reactions, etc. A certain signal value in animals is played by bioluminescence, that is, the ability to glow. Light signals emitted by fish, mollusks, and other aquatic organisms serve to attract prey, individuals of the opposite sex.

Temperature. The thermal regime is the most important condition for the existence of living organisms. The main source of heat is solar radiation.

The boundaries of the existence of life are temperatures at which the normal structure and functioning of proteins is possible, on average from 0 to +50 ° C. However, a number of organisms have specialized enzyme systems and are adapted to active existence at body temperatures that go beyond these limits (Table . 5). The lowest at which living beings are found is -200°C, and the highest is up to +100°C.

Table 5 - Temperature indicators of various living environments (0 C)

In relation to temperature, all organisms are divided into 2 groups: cold-loving and heat-loving.

Cold-loving (cryophiles) able to live in conditions of relatively low temperatures. Bacteria, fungi, mollusks, worms, arthropods, etc. live at a temperature of -8°C. From plants: trees in Yakutia can withstand a temperature of -70°C. In Antarctica, at the same temperature, lichens, certain types of algae, and penguins live. Under laboratory conditions, seeds, spores of some plants, nematodes tolerate absolute zero temperatures of -273.16°C. Suspension of all life processes is called suspended animation.

thermophilic organisms (thermophiles) - inhabitants of hot regions of the Earth. These are invertebrates (insects, arachnids, mollusks, worms), plants. Many species of organisms are able to tolerate very high temperatures. For example, reptiles, beetles, butterflies can withstand temperatures up to +45-50°C. In Kamchatka, blue-green algae live at a temperature of + 75-80 ° C, camel thorn tolerates a temperature of + 70 ° C.

Invertebrates, fish, reptiles, amphibians lack the ability to maintain a constant body temperature within narrow limits. They are called poikilothermic or cold-blooded. They depend on the level of heat coming from outside.

Birds and mammals are able to maintain a constant body temperature regardless of the ambient temperature. This is - homoiothermic or warm-blooded organisms. They do not depend on external heat sources. Due to the high metabolic rate, they produce a sufficient amount of heat that can be stored.

Temperature adaptations of organisms: Chemical thermoregulation - an active increase in heat production in response to a decrease in temperature; physical thermoregulation- change in the level of heat transfer, the ability to retain heat or, on the contrary, dissipate heat. Hairline, distribution of fat reserves, body size, organ structure, etc.

Behavioral responses- movement in space allows you to avoid adverse temperatures, hibernation, torpor, huddling, migration, burrowing, etc.

Humidity. Water is an important environmental factor. All biochemical reactions take place in the presence of water.

Table 6 - Water content in various organisms (% of body weight)

The influence of man as an ecological factor is extremely strong and versatile. Not a single ecosystem on the planet has escaped this influence, and many ecosystems have been completely destroyed. Even entire biomes, such as the steppes, have almost completely disappeared from the face of the earth. Anthropogenic means "born of man", and anthropogenic refers to those factors that owe their origin to any human activity. In this they fundamentally differ from natural factors that arose even before the appearance of man, but still exist and operate.

Anthropogenic factors (AF) arose only with the advent of man during the ancient stage of its interaction with nature, but then they were still very limited in scope. The first significant AF was the impact on nature with the help of fire; the set of AFs spread significantly with the development of animal husbandry, crop production, and the emergence of large settlements. Of particular importance for the organisms of the biosphere were such APs, which had no analogues in nature before, since in the course of evolution these organisms could not develop certain adaptations to them.

Now the influence of man on the biosphere has reached gigantic proportions: there is a total pollution of the natural environment, the geographical envelope is saturated with technical structures (cities, factories, pipelines, mines, reservoirs, etc.); technical items (i.e., spacecraft remnants, containers with toxic substances, landfills) new substances that are not assimilated by biota; new processes - chemical, physical, biological and mixed (thermonuclear fusion, bioengineering, etc.).

Anthropogenic factors - bodies, substances, processes and phenomena that arise as a result of economic and other human activities and act on nature together with natural factors. The whole variety of anthropogenic factors is divided into the following main subgroups:

o Body factors are, for example, artificial relief (mounds, cockroaches), reservoirs (reservoirs, canals, ponds), structures and buildings, and the like. The factors of this subgroup are characterized by a clear spatial certainty and long-term action. Produced before, they often exist for centuries and even millennia. Many of them are distributed over large areas.

o Factors-substances are conventional and radioactive chemicals, artificial chemical compounds and elements, aerosols, wastewater, and the like. They, unlike the first subgroup, do not have a specific spatial definition, constantly change concentration and move, changing the degree of impact on the elements of nature, respectively. Some of them are destroyed over time, others can be present in the environment for tens, hundreds and even thousands of years (for example, some radioactive substances), which makes it possible for them to accumulate in nature.

o Process factors - this is a subgroup of AF, which includes the impact on the nature of animals and plants, the destruction of harmful and breeding of beneficial organisms, the random or purposeful movement of organisms in space, mining, soil erosion, and the like. These factors often occupy limited areas of nature, but sometimes they can cover large spaces. In addition to the direct impact on nature, they often cause a number of indirect changes. All processes are highly dynamic and often unidirectional.

o Phenomenon factors are, for example, heat, light, radio waves, electric and electromagnetic fields, vibration, pressure, sound effects, etc. Unlike other AF subgroups, phenomena mostly have accurate parameters. As a rule, as they move away from the source, their influence on nature decreases.

Based on the foregoing, anthropogenic factors can be called only those bodies, substances, processes and phenomena produced by man that did not exist in nature before the appearance of man. In the event that certain AF did not exist before the appearance of man only in some (certain) region, they are called regional anthropogenic factors; if they were absent only for a certain season, then they are called seasonal anthropogenic factors.

In those cases when a body, substance, process or phenomenon produced by a person is similar in its qualities and properties to a natural factor, then it can be considered an anthropogenic factor only when it quantitatively prevails over the natural one. For example, heat, which is a natural factor, becomes anthropogenic if its amount, which the enterprise releases into the environment, causes an increase in the temperature of this environment. Such factors are called quantitative-anthropogenic.

Sometimes, under the influence of a person, the transition of bodies, processes, substances or phenomena into a new quality is carried out. In this case, we are talking about qualitative anthropogenic factors, for example, sands become mobile due to the destruction of vegetation by humans, they are fixed, or water that is formed from a glacier when it melts under the influence of anthropogenic warming.

Consider such a simple anthropogenic impact as grazing. Firstly, this immediately leads to the suppression in the biocenosis of a number of species that are eaten by domestic animals. Secondly, as a result of this, groups are formed on the territory with a relatively small number of species that livestock do not accept, so each of them has a significant number. Thirdly, the biogeocenosis that has arisen in this way becomes unstable, easily amenable to population fluctuations, and therefore, if the effect of the factor (grazing) intensifies, this can lead to profound changes and even complete degradation of the biogeocenosis.

When identifying and studying AF, the main attention is paid not to the means by which they are made, but to those of their elements that cause changes in nature. From the point of view of the doctrine of factors, anthropogenic impact on nature can be defined as a conscious and unconscious influence through man-made AF. This influence is carried out not only in the process of human activity, but also after its completion. The influence of a person, which is classified by type of activity, is a complex factor. For example, if we analyze the plowing of a field by a tractor as an effect of a complex anthropogenic factor, we can cite the following components: 1) soil compaction; 2) crushing soil organisms; 3) loosening the soil; 4) turning the soil; 5) cutting organisms with a plow; 6) soil vibration; 7) soil contamination with fuel residues; 8) pollution of the atmosphere by exhausts; 9) sound effects, etc.

There are many classifications of AF according to various criteria. By nature, AF is divided into:

Mechanical - pressure from the wheels of cars, deforestation, obstacles to the movement of organisms, and the like;

Physical - heat, light, electric field, color, humidity changes, etc.;

Chemical - the action of various chemical elements and their compounds;

Biological - the influence of introduced organisms, breeding of plants and animals, forest plantations, and the like.

Landscape - artificial rivers and lakes, beaches, forests, meadows, etc.

It should be noted that any type of human activity cannot be defined simply as the sum of AF, since this activity involves elements that can in no way be considered factors in the natural sense, for example, technical means, products, people themselves, their production relations Technological processes and v. Only in some cases, technical means (for example, dams, communication lines, buildings) can be called factors if they directly cause changes in nature by their presence, for example, they are an obstacle to the movement of animals, a barrier to air flows, etc.

According to the time of origin and duration of action, anthropogenic factors are divided into the following groups:

Factors produced in the past: a) those that have ceased to operate, but its consequences are still being felt now (destruction of certain types of organisms, overgrazing, etc.); b) those that continue to operate in our time (artificial relief, reservoirs, introductions, etc.);

Factors that are produced in our time: a) those that act only at the time of production (radio waves, noise, light); b) those that are valid for a certain time and after the end of production (persistent chemical pollution, cut down forest, etc.).

Most AFs are distributed in areas of intensive development of industry and agriculture. However, some produced in limited areas can be found in any region of the world due to their ability to migrate (for example, radioactive substances with a long decay period, persistent pesticides). Even those APs that are very widespread on the planet or in a separate "and" region are distributed unevenly in nature, creating zones of high and low concentrations, as well as zones of their complete absence. So soil plowing and livestock grazing are carried out only in certain areas, you need to know for sure.

So, the main quantitative indicator of AF is the degree of saturation of space with them, called the concentration of anthropogenic factors. The concentration of AP in a particular area is determined, as a rule, by the intensity and nature of AP production; the degree of ability of these factors to migrate; the property of accumulation (accumulation) in nature and the general conditions of a particular natural complex. Therefore, the quantitative features of AF change significantly in time and space.

According to the degree of ability to migrate, anthropogenic factors are divided into those that:

They do not migrate - they act only at the place of production and at some distance from it (relief, vibration, pressure, sound, light, motionless organisms introduced by man, etc.);

Migrate with streams of water and air (dust, heat, chemicals, gases, aerosols, etc.);

They migrate with the means of production (ships, trains, planes, etc.);

They migrate independently (mobile organisms introduced by humans, feral domestic animals).

Not all AFs are continuously produced by humans; they have different frequency. So, haymaking takes place in a certain period, but annually; Atmospheric pollution by industrial enterprises is carried out either at certain hours or around the clock. The study of the dynamics of the production of factors is very important for a correct assessment of their impact on nature. With an increase in the number of periods and their duration, the impact on nature intensifies due to a decrease in the possibilities for self-healing of the quantitative and qualitative features of the elements of nature.

The dynamics of the number and set of various factors is clearly expressed throughout the year, due to the seasonality of many production processes. Identification of the AF dynamics is carried out for a certain territory for a selected time (for example, for a year, season, day). This is of great importance for comparing them with the dynamics of natural factors and for determining the degree of influence on the nature of AF. Wind erosion of soils is most dangerous in summer, and water erosion is most dangerous in spring when snow melts, when there is still no vegetation; wastewater of the same volume and composition changes the chemistry of the river more in winter than in spring, due to the small volume of winter runoff.

According to such an important indicator as the ability to accumulate in nature, AF are divided into:

Existing only at the moment of production, therefore by their nature they are not capable of accumulation (light, vibration, etc.);

Those that are able to persist in nature for a long time after their production, which leads to their accumulation - accumulation - and increased impact on nature.

The second group of AF includes artificial relief, reservoirs, chemical and radioactive substances, and the like. These factors are very dangerous, as their concentrations and areas grow over time, and, accordingly, the intensity of the impact on the elements of nature. Some radioactive substances obtained by man from the bowels of the Earth and introduced into the active circulation of substances can exhibit radioactivity for hundreds and thousands of years, while exerting a negative impact on nature. The ability to accumulate sharply enhances the role of AF in the development of nature, and in some cases even is decisive in determining the possibility of the existence of individual species and organisms.

During the migration process, some factors can move from one environment to another and act in all environments that are in a particular region. Thus, in the event of an accident at a nuclear power plant, radioactive substances spread in the atmosphere, and also pollute soils, penetrate into groundwater and settle in water bodies. And solid emissions from industrial enterprises from the atmosphere fall onto the soil and into water bodies. This feature is inherent in many AF from a subgroup of factors-substances. Some stable chemical factors in the process of the circulation of substances are carried out of water bodies with the help of organisms onto land, and then from it are again washed away into water bodies - this is how the long-term circulation and action of the factor occurs in a number of natural environments.

The effect of the anthropogenic factor on living organisms depends not only on its quality, but also on the quantity per unit of space, called the dose of the factor. The dose of a factor is a quantitative characteristic of a factor in a certain space. The dose of the grazing factor will be the number of animals of a certain species per hectare of pasture per day or grazing season. The determination of its optimum is closely related to the dose of the factor. AF, depending on their dose, can affect organisms in different ways or be indifferent to them. Some doses of the factor cause a maximum of positive changes in nature and practically do not cause negative (direct and indirect) changes. they are called optimal, or optimum.

Some AF continuously affect nature, others - periodically or sporadically. Therefore, according to the frequency, they are divided into:

Continuously acting - pollution of the atmosphere, water and soil by emissions from industrial enterprises and the extraction of minerals from the bowels;

periodic factors - plowing the soil, growing and harvesting agricultural crops, grazing domestic animals, etc. These factors directly affect nature only at certain hours, therefore they are associated with the seasonal and daily frequency of AF action;

Sporadic factors - vehicle accidents that lead to environmental pollution, explosions of nuclear and thermonuclear devices, forest fires, etc. They operate at any time, although in some cases they can be tied to a specific season.

It is very important to distinguish between anthropogenic factors according to the changes in which they have or can have an impact on nature and living organisms. Therefore, they are also divided according to the stability of zooming changes in nature:

AF causing temporary reverse changes - any temporary impact on nature does not lead to the complete destruction of species; pollution of water or air by unstable chemicals, etc.;

AF causing relatively irreversible changes - individual cases of the introduction of new species, the creation of small reservoirs, the destruction of some water bodies, etc.;

AF that cause absolutely irreversible changes in nature - the complete destruction of which species of plants and animals, the complete withdrawal from mineral deposits, etc.

The action of some AF can cause the so-called anthropogenic stress of ecosystems, which can be of two types:

Acute stress, which is characterized by a sudden onset, a rapid rise in intensity and a short duration of disturbances in ecosystem components;

Chronic stress, which is characterized by disturbances of low intensity, but they continue for a long time or often recur.

Natural ecosystems are able to withstand acute stress or recover from it. Potential stressors include, for example, industrial waste. Particularly dangerous among them are those that include man-made new chemicals in which ecosystem components do not yet have adaptations. The chronic action of these factors can lead to significant changes in the structure and functions of communities of organisms in the process of acclimatization and genetic adaptation to them.

In the process of social metabolism (that is, metabolism in the process of nature management), substances and energy appear in the environment, created with the help of technological processes (anthropogenic factors). Some of them have long been called "pollution". So, pollution should be considered those AP, which negatively affect the organisms and resources of inanimate nature that are valuable for humans. In other words, pollution is everything that appears in the environment and in the wrong place, at the wrong time and in the wrong quantities that are usually inherent in nature, and brings it out of balance. In general, there are a huge number of forms of pollution (Fig. 3.5).

The whole variety of forms of human pollution of the natural environment can be reduced to the following main types (Table 3.2):

o Mechanical pollution - pollination of the atmosphere, the presence of solid particles in water and soil, as well as in outer space.

o Physical pollution - radio waves, vibration, heat and radioactivity, etc.

o Chemical - pollution by gaseous and liquid chemical compounds and elements, as well as their solid fractions.

o Biological contamination includes pathogens, pests, dangerous competitors, some predators.

o Radiation - excess of the natural level of content in the environment of radioactive substances.

o Information pollution - changes in the properties of the environment, impairs its function as a carrier of information.

Table 3.2. Characteristics of the main types of environmental pollution

Rice. 3.5.

One of the indicators characterizing one or another degree of environmental pollution is the specific ability to pollute, that is, the numerical ratio of a ton of products passing through one of the systems of social metabolism to the weight of substances emitted into nature and falls on this ton. For example, for agricultural production, the substances emitted into nature per ton of products include undeveloped and washed away fertilizers and pesticides, organic substances from livestock complexes, etc. For industrial enterprises, these are all solid, gaseous and liquid substances emitted into nature. For different modes of transport, calculations are carried out per ton of transported products, and pollution should include not only vehicle emissions, but also those goods that were dispersed during transportation.

The concept of "specific pollution capacity" should be distinguished from the concept of "specific pollution"1, that is, the degree of pollution of the environment, has already been implemented. This degree is determined separately for conventional chemicals, thermal and radiation pollution, due to their different quality. Also, specific pollution must be calculated separately for soil, water and air. For soil, this will be the total weight of all pollution per 1 m2 per year, for water and air - per 1 m3 per year. For example, specific thermal pollution is the number of degrees by which the environment is heated by anthropogenic factors at a certain moment or on average per year.

The impact of anthropogenic factors on ecosystem components is not always negative. Positive will be such an anthropogenic impact that causes changes in nature that are favorable for humans in the existing nature of the interaction between society and nature. But at the same time, for individual elements of nature, it can also be negative. For example, the destruction of harmful organisms is positive for humans, but at the same time harmful to these organisms; the creation of reservoirs is beneficial to humans, but harmful to nearby soils, etc.

AF differ in the results in the natural environment, which leads or can lead to their action. Therefore, according to the nature of the aftereffect of the influence of AF, the following possible groups of consequences in nature are distinguished:

Destruction or complete destruction of individual elements of nature;

Changes in the properties of these elements (for example, a sharp decrease in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth as a result of the dustiness of the atmosphere, which leads to climate change and worsens the conditions for photosynthesis by plants)

An increase in those that already exist, and the creation of new elements of nature (for example, the increase and creation of new forest belts, the creation of reservoirs, etc.);

Movement in space (many species of plants and animals, including pathogens, move with vehicles).

When studying the consequences of AF exposure, one should take into account the fact that these consequences can manifest themselves not only in our time, but also in the future. Thus, the consequences of the introduction of new species into ecosystems by man appear only after decades; ordinary chemical pollution often causes serious impairment of vital functions only when they accumulate in living organisms, that is, some time after the direct impact of the factor. Modern nature, when many of its elements are direct or indirect results of human activity, bears very little resemblance to the previous one as a result of changes made by man. All these changes at the same time are anthropogenic factors that can be considered elements of modern nature. However, there are a number of AFs that cannot be called elements of nature, because they belong exclusively to the activities of society, for example, the influence of vehicles, cutting down trees, etc. At the same time, reservoirs, artificial forests, relief and other works of man should be considered anthropogenic elements of nature. , which are also secondary AFs.

It is important to show all types of anthropogenic activities and their scale in each region. For this purpose, a qualitative and quantitative characterization of anthropogenic factors is carried out. Qualitative assessment of AF is carried out in accordance with the usual methods of natural sciences; evaluate the main quality indicators of AF: general character - chemical substance, radio waves, pressure, etc.; basic parameters - wavelength, intensity, concentration, speed of movement, etc.; the time and duration of the factor - continuously during the day, in the summer season, and the like; as well as the nature of the influence of AF on the object under study - movement, destruction or change in properties, etc.

Quantitative characterization of AF is carried out to determine the scale of their impact on the components of the natural environment. At the same time, the following main quantitative indicators of AF are studied:

The size of the space in which the factor is detected and operates;

The degree of saturation of space with this factor;

The total number of elementary and complex factors in this space;

The degree of damage to objects;

The degree of coverage by the action of the factor of all objects on which it affects.

The size of the space in which the anthropogenic factor is found is based on expeditionary research and the determination of the area of ​​action of this factor. The degree of saturation of space by a factor is the percentage of the space actually occupied by it to the area of ​​the factor's action. The total number of factors (elementary and complex) is an important complex indicator of the degree of human impact as an anthropogenic factor on nature. To solve many issues related to nature protection, it is important to have a general idea of ​​the power and breadth of the effect of AF on nature, which is called the intensity of anthropogenic impact. An increase in the intensity of anthropogenic impact should be accompanied by a corresponding increase in the scale of environmental protection measures.

All of the above indicates the urgency of the tasks of production management and the nature of the action of various anthropogenic factors. In other words, the management of AF is the regulation of their set, distribution in space, qualitative and quantitative features in order to ensure optimal conditions for the development of society in its interaction with nature. Today, there are many ways to control AF, but all of them require improvement. One of these ways is the complete cessation of the production of a certain factor, the other is a decrease or, conversely, an increase in the production of certain factors. Another effective way is the neutralization of one factor by another (for example, deforestation is neutralized by their re-planting, the destruction of landscapes by their reclamation, etc.). Man's ability to control the action of AF on nature will eventually make rational control of all social metabolism.

Summing up, it should be emphasized that for any impact of natural abiotic and biotic factors in living organisms, certain adaptive (adaptive) properties produced in the process of evolution, while for most anthropogenic factors that act predominantly suddenly (unpredictable impact), there are no such adaptations in living organisms. . It is this feature of the action of anthropogenic factors on nature that people must constantly remember and take into account in any activity related to the natural environment.