A device for measuring sunshine. What is a heliograph? Why is this device needed? See what "Heliograph" is in other dictionaries

heliograph (helio- + Greek grapho to write, depict)

meteorological instrument for automatically recording the duration of sunshine, i.e., the time when the sun is above the horizon and is not covered by clouds.

New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language, T. F. Efremova.

heliograph

A device for transmitting light signals over a distance, used in military affairs in the 19th century. - early XX century.

A device that automatically records the duration of sunshine during the day.

An astronomical instrument for photographing the Sun.

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

heliograph

HELIOGRAPH (from helio... and... graph)

a device for automatically recording the duration of sunshine during the day, i.e. when the sun is not covered by clouds.

A telescope adapted to photograph the sun.

Heliograph

(from helio... and Greek grápho ≈ I write),

in meteorology, a device for automatically recording the duration of sunshine, that is, the time when the Sun is above the horizon and is not covered by clouds. There are many designs of H. In the USSR, H. Campbell-Stokes is the most common, in which a fixed ball serves as a lens that collects the sun's rays on a cardboard strip separated by hour lines. The tape is burned by the sun's rays if the irradiance exceeds 0.3≈0.4 cal/cm2 min. Due to the visible diurnal motion of the Sun, the burn has the form of a line, the length of which serves as a measure of the duration of the aurora. G. can also serve as an actinograph with continuous registration (see Actinometer).

Lit .: Sternzat M.S., Meteorological instruments and observations, L., 1968, p. 209.

In astronomy, a telescope adapted to photograph the Sun; It is used to obtain photographs of the entire or part of the solar disk in a wide range of wavelengths. G. can be used in combination with celestial. Owing to the enormous illumination created by the sun, the aperture ratio of the lens of a lens can be minimal. To obtain images of the Sun of large linear dimensions, the focal length of the gyroscope is chosen as large as possible; in order not to increase the size of the instrument, additional magnifying systems are used. G. is equipped with a high-speed shutter (usually curtain type), giving an exposure time of 0.02 to 0.001 sec. One of the first gyros was installed by the Russian astrophysicist M. M. Gusev in Vilna (Vilnius) in 1854.

In military affairs in the 19th - early 20th centuries. a light signaling device for giving signals (using Morse code) by a mirror that reflects light rays. The range of G. during the day is ≈ 18≈40 km, at night ≈ 3≈8 km.

Wikipedia

Heliograph (meteorology)

Heliograph - in meteorology and climatology - a device for automatically recording the duration of sunshine during the day, that is, when the Sun is not covered by clouds.

In the USSR, heliographs of the Campbell-Stokes system, in which a spherical lens collects the sun's rays on a cardboard strip separated by hour lines, are most widely used. Due to the visible diurnal motion of the Sun, a clear burnt trace remains on the tape. According to Russian metrological standards, the Campbell-Stokes heliographic system is a measuring instrument. As a rule, the mechanical system allows the instrument to be calibrated for operation at any latitude.

Heliograph (telegraph)

Heliograph in communication technology - optical telegraph, a device for transmitting information over a distance by means of light flashes. The main part of the heliograph is a mirror fixed in a frame, the tilt of which is signaled by a series of flashes of sunlight (usually in Morse code) in the direction of the signal receiver.

Usually heliographs were made mobile and mounted on a tripod.

They were widely distributed in the armies of many countries in the 19th and early 20th centuries (in the army of Great Britain and Australia - until the 1960s).

The communication range in good conditions could exceed 50 km. The record for the distance of communication by means of a heliograph was set in the USA in 1894 (the distance between the points of transmission and reception is 295 km, both were located on mountain peaks).

The standard equipment of life rafts includes a mirror with a hole - for the possibility of attracting the attention of ships and aircraft with the help of a "sunbeam".

Heliograph

Heliograph Can mean:

• Heliograph- a type of optical telegraph.
• Heliograph- in meteorology and climatology - a device for automatically recording the duration of sunshine during the day.
• Heliograph- a telescope for observing the sun.
• heliography is an early photographic process invented by Nicéphore Niépce in 1822.

Examples of the use of the word heliograph in the literature.

Booths with thermographs, evaporator hydrographs, weathercocks, rain gauges, barographs, actinometers, snow gauges, heliographs.

Tarakh was also in charge of heliograph- apparatus, without which communication with Palinsky's castle - and before that it was several miles in a vertical straight line - did not seem feasible.

Meanwhile, the academician and the elder successfully found Tarakh's house, on whose roof sparkled heliograph, together took hold of the knocker in the shape of a snake's head and three double blows on the bronze board asked for permission to enter.

gird yourself, take heliograph at rutsi, may the illustrious count of news, hedgehog emeyakhu be honored!

Via heliograph it was, of course, possible to summon Palinsky, otherwise there would be no point in handing the heliograph to the snake-eaters, but in the memory of the living it was used for this purpose, and indeed for no other purpose, the reflector was never used.

A blue ray fell through the hatch on Wheeler, tiny, but very bright - this is a naval heliograph reflected the ray of Howl that flickered at the eastern end of the whirlpool.

For two days they sailed down the River to the supposed anchorage of a large ship, continuously observing Oscas's signals sent by heliograph, then flashes of fire and clouds of smoke, then the sound of drums.

On the rise before heliograph Tarakh perched up, his son took hold of the handles, for some time nothing else happened.

This is a special device called a heliograph, which in Greek means “writing the sun” (in Greek mythology, the sun god is Helios). The first heliograph was designed by the English astronomer Warren Delarue only at the beginning of the 19th century. It was a wide tube with special lenses, adapted to receive an image of the Sun on a photosensitive plate.

Heliographs have some varieties and are also used to transmit information at a visible distance through solar flares. Such heliographs were mounted on tripods and were used by the armies of several countries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The history of the appearance of devices goes back to ancient times.

In ancient times, people built rather intricate structures and structures to observe the Sun in order to understand what its power is. Monuments that have survived to this day are more than just temples. These are calendars and observatories - tools for studying the Sun. Some of them are still active today. This is evidence of how important the Sun played in human life.

Mace Hall is a thousand years older than the Egyptian pyramids. This is one of the most curious architectural structures of the Stone Age. On the day of the winter solstice, something inexplicable happened in one of the rooms; the rays of the setting sun penetrated through the tunnel into this hall and from that moment the length of the day began to increase. Knowledge about the movement of the Sun across the sky also clarified many other previously inexplicable phenomena. Over time, all kinds of instruments for observing the Sun appeared.

Heliograph device and principle of operation

The modern heliograph has significant differences. All weather stations in the world have such a device. The heliograph is relatively simple. Its main parts are: a glass ball polished from a special, pure glass, a ribbon lined for hours and minutes. They are fixed on a metal platform, oriented along the sides of the horizon in accordance with the geographical latitude of the place.

The sun moves across the sky, and its rays, passing through a glass ball, a fixed heliograph, leave a black burn-through slit on the tape. It is a trace of the movement of the Sun from dawn to dusk. The clock mechanism, rotating the outer cylinder, makes a complete revolution during the day; thus, the cracks follow the movement of the sun all the time and the sun's rays, falling through them on the motionless paper, leave on it a record of the sunlight during the day. The burn on the heliograph tape is interrupted if the sun is covered by clouds even for a short time. On clear days, the number of hours of sunshine coincides with the length of the daylight hours. At the end of the day, scientists sum up how long the radiation flux came from the sun. Photographs of the solar disk are taken using light-absorbing filters.

(see clause 2.2). It is mounted on a special stand 175 cm high so that the floor is strictly horizontal. The stand should ensure a stable position of the booth, excluding its vibrations even in strong winds. The legs of the stand are attached to shoes (wooden or concrete), which are dug into the soil to a depth of 50-60 cm. The booth with the stand is oriented on the site so that the door faces north; on the north side of the stand, a ladder with a lattice platform for the observer is installed. The ladder must not touch the stand. The stand and ladder, as well as the booth, must be painted with white oil paint.

If there are long snowstorms at the station with a wind speed of more than 20 m / s, in which the booth is completely clogged with snow, then it is allowed to cover the booth during a snowstorm with a cover made of a bag of wine or other durable, but wind-blown fabric. The cover must be removed as soon as the wind speed drops below 20 m/s.

In the psychrometric booth, psychrometric thermometers and a meteorological hair hygrometer are installed on a metal stand (Fig. 1.4.6).

The upper crossbar of the tripod must be fixed at such a height that the tanks of the thermometers inserted into it are at a height of 2 m from the ground.

Under the right thermometer, the tank of which is wrapped in batiste, a psychrometric glass with water is installed to wet the cambric. The glass is inserted into the ring holder, which is fixed with a screw on the lower crossbar of the tripod. The glass is closed with a lid with a slot for passing the cambric.

The meteorological hair hygrometer is fastened with screws on the upper crossbar of the tripod. Meteorological maximum and minimum thermometers are placed in tanks to the east on special arched legs attached to the lower crossbar. The minimum thermometer is placed strictly horizontally on the lower pair of legs, and the maximum thermometer is placed on the upper pair of legs with a slight inclination towards the tank. To protect thermometers from damage, it is recommended to wrap the bends of the tripod legs with woolen or harsh threads. To prevent thermometers from slipping off the legs, it is recommended to wear thin rubber rings on them, which should be located at the legs on the inside.

To illuminate the instruments when making observations at night, on the front of the ceiling of the booth near the door of the installation

an electric light bulb with a power of 15-25 watts is poured. The light bulb in the booth should have its own switch. The lamp turns on only for the duration of the readings. In the absence of electric lighting, a portable electric torch should be used.

Observers are required to constantly monitor the condition of the booth. Systematically (at least once a month) you should clean the booth from dust (walls, blinds, floor, ceiling, roof), wiping it with a damp cloth or dry brush. At the same time, you need to have

in mind that by the time of observation the booth should dry well,

but the instruments installed in it to take appropriate readings.

Before cleaning the booth, it is necessary to remove the instruments located in it, having previously made readings and writing them down in the "Station History Log" with a mark of the day and hour. Half an hour after the new installation of the instruments, shake the maximum thermometer and bring the pin of the minimum thermometer to the surface of the alcohol.

At least once or twice a year, the booth should be washed with warm water and soapy water, and if necessary, repainted. During the drying of the booth, the instruments should be transferred either to the spare booth or to the booth where the recorders are installed. In the latter case, the air temperature and humidity should be determined either by an aspiration psychrometer (if available at the station) or by a chromometric thermometer and hair meteorological hygrometer temporarily installed in the recorder booth. In areas where heavy air pollution makes it necessary to wash the booth frequently, it is necessary to have a permanently installed spare booth.

In winter, when preparing installations for observations, it is necessary to carefully remove snow and frost from outside and inside the booth with a brush or a small whisk, and also to remove snow from the roof of the booth.

1.5. Instruments for recording temperature changes

And relative humidity

1.5.1. Thermograph meteorological M-16AS (GOST 6416-75) provides continuous registration of changes in air temperature with an error of ±1°C in one of the following ranges: from-45 to 35 °С; from -35 to 45 °С; from -25 to 55 °С.

The principle of operation of the thermograph is based on the property of a bimetallic plate to change the bending radius with a change in air temperature. The deformation of the bimetallic plate with the help of a transmission mechanism is converted into the movement of an arrow with a pen along a chart form fixed on a drum rotated by a clockwork.

Thermograph M-16AS (Fig. 1.5.1) consists of the following main units:

temperature measuring transducer - bimetals

cal plate 14;

			Thermograph meteorological M-16AS.
a - external; "!			b - mechanism	thermograph; / - pen, 2.- - base
		3 - axis of the drum,		4 - fixed gear,
pen arrow,		6 - plate protection,			7 - thrust, 8 and // - levers,
		10 and 12 - brackets,			13 - set screw,	14 -

and axis 9;

- adjusting part: arrows 5 with a pen / and a drum with a clockwork 18;

- housing consisting of a base and a hinged lid 19. A bimetallic plate is fixed at one end in a box

thought 17, reinforced with a bracket 12 on the main

bracket 10, and at the other end is connected by a transmission mechanism to axle 9, which rotates together with arrow 5.

When the air temperature changes, the bending of the bimetallic plate changes. With the help of a transmission mechanism, the deformation of the plate is converted into the movement of an arrow with a feather (with an increase in air temperature, the arrow moves up, with a decrease in air temperature - down).

The pen, put on the end of the arrow, writes on the diagram form, fixed on the drum 18. The drum rotates around the vertical axis with the help of a clock mechanism placed inside it, and ensures uniform movement of the diagram form. The duration of one complete revolution of the drum is 26 hours.

The main board of the device, on which all its components and mechanisms are mounted, is placed in a plastic case with a hinged lid. The bimetallic plate is brought out and protected by protective arcs 6.

A spring lock with a latch is mounted in the body of the device. The housing cover is opened (closed) by the handle while pressing the latch of the lock.

The thermograph is equipped with a time marker 15, which makes it possible to mark the time of observations in the form of vertically arranged notches crossing the recording curve with a pen on the diagram form. The time stamp is made without opening the cover of the device, by lightly pressing the button of the timer, which is brought outside the body of the device.

The chart form is divided vertically by horizontal parallel lines into divisions corresponding to 1 °C, and horizontally by vertical arcuate lines into divisions corresponding to 15 minutes of drum rotation time. The numbers at the top of the form correspond to the hours of the day.

The device of the recording part of the thermograph is similar to the device of the recording part of the barograph.

Setting the arrow pen to the required division of the chart form (translating the pen up or down) is carried out by the setting

(TU-25-04-186G72) provides continuous recording of changes in relative air humidity in the range from 30 to 100% at an ambient temperature of -35 to 45°C.

The principle of operation of the M-21AC hygrograph is based on the ability of a fat-free human hair to change its length with a change in air humidity. The change in the length of the hair bundle is caused by

rotated clockwork.

Hygrograph M-21AS (Fig. 1.5.2) consists of the following main units:

Moisture transducer - a bundle (35-40 pcs) of fat-free human hair 6, protected from damage by special protection 5;

Rice. 1.5.2. Hygrograph M-21LS.

a - external		b - mechanism	hygrograph.		1 - drum axis,	g - arrow, 3 - from
flip cover,		4 - counterweight,		Protection,	6 - a bunch of hair,	7 - bracket, 8 -
installation	screw, 9 - hook,			10 - base, 11 - button		timer,
				Arrow withdrawal.

The transmission mechanism, consisting of a system of arc patterns with axes;

- the recording part - arrows with a pen and a drum with a clockwork;

- housing consisting of a base and a hinged lid.

The ends of the hair bundle are fixed in special bushings fixed on the bracket 7. The hair bundle is pulled by the middle with hook 9, which is connected to arrow 2 by means of a transmission mechanism. Cylindrical counterweight 4 keeps the hair bundle in a taut state.

When the air humidity changes, the length of the hair bundle changes, which causes the arrow with the feather to move up (with an increase in air humidity) or down (with a decrease in humidity).

attached to the drum. The drum rotates around a vertical axis with the help of a clock mechanism and ensures uniform movement of the chart blank.

The duration of one full revolution of the drum is 26 hours. The design of the recording part of the hygrograph is similar to that of the recording part of the barograph.

The chart form is divided by horizontal parallel lines into divisions corresponding to 2% relative air humidity, and by vertical arcuate lines of allotment, corresponding to 15 minutes of drum rotation time.

The pointer pen is set to the required division of the chart blank by turning the set screw 8. The pen is removed from the drum in the same way as with a thermograph.

The hygrograph is placed in a plastic case with a hinged lid, the humidity measuring transducer is brought out and is protected by protection 5.

The housing cover opens in the same way as a thermograph. From the timestamps are produced by pressing the button 11, brought out of the case.

1.5.3. Booth protective jade for meteorological

BS type devices (GOST 14211-79) (Fig. 1.5.3) is designed

The booth must be installed at the meteorological site in accordance with the layout of instruments and equipment (see clause 2.2).

The rules for installation, orientation of the booth, the device for its internal lighting are the same as for the booth of the BP type; booth stand and ladder are similar. Particular attention should be paid to the strength of the installation of the booth to obtain high-quality records on the forms.

When the snow cover grows, the booth with instruments must be moved to an additional stand simultaneously with the rearrangement of the BP type booth.

The thermograph and hygrograph are installed on special shelves of the booth: the thermograph is on the bottom, and the hygrograph is on the top. When installing the booth, its height should be selected so that the bimetallic plate of the thermograph is at a height of 2 m from the ground, as is the tank of the dry psychrometric thermometer.

1.6. Devices and installations for recording the duration of sunshine

1.6.1. Heliograph device universal model GU-1 shown in fig. 1.6.1.

The base of the device is a flat metal plate with two posts 1. Between the posts on the horizontal axis 2, the movable part of the device is fixed, consisting of a column 3 with a limb 4 and a lower stop 7, a bracket 6 with a cup 5 and an upper stop 15 and a glass ball 8, which is spherical lens. Sector 9 with a scale of latitudes is fixed at one of the ends of the horizontal axis. When moving the horizontal axis 2 of the instrument from west to east and rotating the upper part of the instrument around it, the axis of column 3 is set parallel to the axis of rotation of the Earth (the axis of the world). Screw 11 is used to fix the set angle of inclination of the column axis.

The upper part of the device can be rotated around the axis of the column 3 and fixed in four specific positions. To do this, a special pin 12 is used, which is inserted through the hole in the limb 4 into one of the four holes of the disk 13 fixed on the axis 2. Coincidence of the holes of the limb 4

Rice. 1.6.1. Heliograph universal model GU-1.

/ - stand,	2 - horizontal axis, 3 - column,			4 - lnmb,
	6 - bracket,		8 - glass	ball, 9 -
:vector, 10 - pointer			// - screw for fastening
axis tilt angle, 12 - pin,
		15 - top stop.

1.6.2. Recommendations for installation of a heliograph. The heliograph must be firmly installed to prevent it from swinging. When installing the heliograph on a concrete pole, it is necessary to punch holes in its upper base, in which, with the help of cement, fasten bolts and nuts for fastening a wooden platform.

When installing the device on a wooden pole, do not screw or nail the platform under the heliograph directly to the end of the pole. For its fastening, two transverse crossbars are screwed on the sides of the upper edge of the column, to which a wooden platform is attached.

To protect against moisture, the wooden platform is repeatedly stained.

The platform on the pole must be strictly horizontal, which is checked in two mutually perpendicular directions.

To set the heliograph according to the geographic latitude of the station, tilt the axis of the heliograph and, loosening the locking screw 11, turn the upper part of the device around the horizontal axis 2, setting the latitude scale in such a position that the latitude indicator 10 coincides with the division of the latitude scale corresponding to the latitude of the place of observation ( accurate to 0.5°). For example, if the latitude of the station is 51°27", then the index should be set in the middle between divisions 51 and 52, since 27" is equal to approximately 0.5°.

After setting in latitude, the latitude indicator is fixed with a locking screw.

To install a heliograph along the geographic meridian line, you must:

- on a sunny day, shortly before the true noon, install the heliograph with the tape laid according to the season in the middle of the pillar area with the ball to the south, i.e., aligning the disk index with mark B on the limb;

- according to the table in Appendix 3.1, determine at what hour and minute, according to local mean solar time, true noon occurs on a given day;

- determine Moscow (winter) time, which will show the observer's clock at true noon, by introducing a constant difference between the mean solar time of the given station and Moscow (winter) time;

- at the moment corresponding to the onset of true noon, the heliograph is rotated so that the luminous dot is on the central line of the tape, coinciding with the same line on the instrument cup.

Before fixing the heliograph, its base is outlined with a pencil so that later it can be established that the device has not been moved from its place.

After fixing the heliograph, it is necessary to once again check its installation in terms of level and orientation along the meridian.

Upon completion of the installation, it is necessary to draw up a schedule of horizon closure, indicating from which side and by what objects the horizon is closed, their height and distance to objects. When changing the horizon closure conditions, appropriate corrections should be made on the chart as well.

	14 Order No. 66

other shortcomings in the organization of observations of the duration of sunshine:

The record on the right and left sides of the tape is not the same width. This defect appears on perfectly clear days and may be caused by non-concentricity of the cup and ball surfaces or by an incorrect position of the ball. The same record, if it is not constantly observed, can happen if one end of the tape comes out of the grooves;

The end time of recording on one tape does not agree with the moments of the start of recording on the next tape by the same value (Fig. 1.6.2). In this case, there is a violation

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l t s fmmmmH : ^^

Rice. 1.6.2. Recording on the heliograph tape in case of

focal length

distances.

walkable distance

(focal races

standing), and the length of the heliograph record obtained per hour does not correspond to the distance between the two hour lines on the tape.

To process the records of such a heliograph, one should change the scale of the standard tape, decreasing or increasing each of the hour intervals in accordance with whether a systematic excess of the record is formed or, conversely, the record is systematically shortened;

The heliograph record is systematically obtained not parallel to the longitudinal line and the upper (lower) cut of the tapes when one of the ends of the record is tilted. This indicates a non-horizontal position of the device along the west-east line (Fig. 1.6.3) or an incorrect installation along the true meridian.

If the heliograph record from sunrise to sunset on a clear day turns out to be asymmetric with respect to the average vertical line of the tape, i.e., the beginning and end of the record are not at the same distance from the 12-hour line, then it is more likely to

put the wrong setting of the heliograph relative to me

Incorrect setting of the heliograph along the meridian can also be detected by the discrepancy between the time of removing or overlaying the tape with the time of the end of the recording on one tape and the beginning of it on the next one. The discrepancy on adjacent tapes will be at

graph to the west), or less (when the heliograph is shifted to the east) the time noted by the observer.

The shift of the heliograph along the meridian must be taken into account when processing tapes:

Rice. 1.6.3. Recording on the heliograph tape in case of violation of the horizontal position of the device along the west-east line.

Non-parallelism of the recording line with the cut of the tape (the recording is too curved compared to the curvature of the tape) can occur if the device is tilted along the north-south line and if it is installed incorrectly in latitude. From such a record, it is not always possible to establish what caused the bending of the record. Nevertheless, if on a cloudless day the ends of the record are located symmetrically with respect to the bend in the middle of the record, and their heights above the cut line are approximately equal, then it can be more likely that the setting is incorrect in latitude. In addition, the recording line during the equinox is not located in the middle of the tape, but closer to its upper or lower cut. With a large inaccuracy in the installation of the device in latitude, the recording may go beyond the limits of the tape, due to which the tape with the resulting burn will become unusable. An example of a heliograph recording incorrectly set in latitude is shown in

Loss of recording on tapes occurs for a number of reasons, the main one being shading of the heliograph. When the heliograph is shaded at sunrise or sunset, the record may turn out to be similar to the record obtained if the device is incorrectly installed relative to the meridian, i.e., not symmetrical relative to the middle line of the tape (Fig. 1.6.5).

The shading of the heliograph in the interval between the start and end of the record can be seen when considering the records of sunshine on a number of clear days during a month. At the same time, in a certain period of time, a gap is noticed in the record at approximately the same hour interval (Fig. 1.6.6).

			23SY Estate

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Rice. 1.6.4. Recording on a heliograph tape when the latitude is incorrectly set.

The duration of shading must be determined by direct observation of the presence of sunshine near the heliograph, its cause must be established, and appropriate entries must be made in the KM-1 book.

Rice. 1.6.5. Recording on heliograph tapes in case of shading of the device at sunrise and sunset.

If the loss of records due to shading exceeds 0.2 h in total, then, if possible, it should be made up for by direct observations.

Failure to comply with the requirements for making observations by observers can also lead to the loss of a tape record:

incorrect insertion of tapes into the cup of the heliograph, untimely transition from one type of tapes to another, untimely change of tapes and contamination of the ball.

Apparent surpluses or shortages of records for an hourly period of time, which are not the same on different days, indicate the presence

< 1,0

Rice. 1.6.6. Recording on the heliograph mites when the device is shaded in the range of 16-17% h.

which heliograph has play between the fixing pin and the disc hole.

When controlling the installation of the heliograph and its orientation according to the nature of the recordings on the tapes, it is necessary to compare the moments of the beginning and end of the recording with the time of the overlay of the tape only after introducing corrections to the latter for the transition to true time.

It must also be remembered that the time of the beginning and end of the aurora registration on the tape does not coincide with the actual time of sunrise and sunset due to the inertia of the spherical glass lens.

And heliograph installation conditions.

1.7. Instruments and installations for measuring soil temperature

at depths

1.7.1. Savinov's crank thermometers1 are a set of four glass mercury thermometers with cylindrical tanks, the ends of which are rounded (Fig. 1.7.1).

The thermometers are bent at an angle of 135° at a distance of 2-3 cm from the tank. This allows the installation of thermometers

1 At meteorological stations, for the measurement of soil surface temperature, soil temperature at depths in areas without vegetation and under natural cover, thermometers TMZ> TM1, TM2, TM5, TM10 (GOST 112-78) should be used.

in the soil so that the tank and part of the thermometer before bending were in a horizontal position under the soil layer, and the part of the thermometer with the scale was located above the soil.

Each thermometer has a scale only in that part of the thermometer that is located above the soil and is available for readings. Below the scale, the thermometer shell is filled with cotton wool and sealing wax interlayers.

1.7.2. Rules for installing Savinov cranked thermometers. When installing elbow thermometers, the following recommendations should be followed.

Before installing thermometers in the soil, special marks should be applied to their shell with oil paint. To do this, the thermometer is placed on a sheet of paper with a centimeter or millimeter grid printed on it. Its reservoir is located parallel to the horizontal lines of the grid so that one of these horizontal lines passes through its middle (Fig. 1.7.2). The mark should be put on that place of the thermometer shell, which will coincide with the horizontal line spaced from the line passing through the middle of the thermometer reservoir, at a distance equal to the depth of the thermometer immersion in the soil. The mark is applied in advance so that the paint has time to dry by the time the thermometers are installed.

To install thermometers in the soil, a recess is made 40 cm long, 25-30 cm wide with one sheer wall, which is located with a deviation from the east-west line to the north by about an angle of 30 °. On fig. 1.7.3 the sheer wall is indicated by the segment OA".

The thermometers are installed with reservoirs to the north at a distance of 10 cm from one another, starting from the greatest depth. To do this, along the steep wall of the excavation (along the line OA"), lay

Rice. 1.7.1. Savinov's crank thermometer.

a straight rail and from its lower edge measure the depth to which the thermometer must be installed. The axis of the thermometer reservoir must be at the specified depth. In the sheer wall of the recess at the marked depth, a recess is made with a clean wooden stick.

Rice. 1.7.2. Applying a ring mark to the sheath of an elbow thermometer.

The thermometer is pushed into the soil all the way to the bend. In this case, the soil should fit snugly against the thermometer reservoir. After that, the recess around the thermometer is covered with earth, slightly compacting it. All the following are installed in the same way.

L \

^May be made from hard steel and then hardened. The lower cutting edge of the knife is sharpened.

To install Savinov's cranked thermometers, the template is placed on the surface of the prepared area so that the short bar of the BC template is directed along the north -

Rice. 1.7.4. Template for mounting crank thermometers.

a - general view, b - ground part, c - knife.

south, the perpendicular side of the template AB along the west-east line, and the oblique AC approximately from the southeast to the northwest.

The knife with its lower sharpened side is inserted into the grooves of the ground template and lowered into the soil (recessed) to failure until the wooden plank, on which the steel plate of the knife is fixed, connects tightly with the rail of the AC ground template.

Without moving the template, remove the ground along the surface of the knife inside the triangle of the template until the grooves appear on the lower edge of the knife. After that, the thermometer tanks are inserted through the groove of the knife into the soil, while simultaneously laying on the inclined (scale) part of the thermometer in the groove of the ground template.

When the installation is completed, the knife is carefully removed, making sure that the thermometers do not move. Sprinkle them with earth to the Level of the ground template, then carefully remove the ground template and trim the soil completely to the level of the site.

1.7.3. Exhaust soil-deep The thermometer is a glass mercury thermometer with a cylindrical reservoir and a glass scale.

For measuring soil temperature at depth
no installation thermometer 2 is placed in a special
frame 3 with metal tip
room 1 (Fig. 1.7.5). For better thermal con
tact and increase in temperature inertia
the space between the thermometer tank and
walls of a metal tip
nyatsya copper or brass filings. From
hole in a metal tip, through which
to which sawdust is poured, poured with mastic.
The frame has a special longitudinal pro
thread 7 for the pin with which it
attached to the end of the wooden rod 5 so
that can move along the rod
0.5-0.8 cm. In this case, the frame should not

Rice. 1.7.5. Exhaust soil-depth thermometer.

/ - metal tip, 2 - thermometer, 3 - frame, 4 - felt rings, 5 - wooden rod, 6 - cap with a ring, 7 - slot for the pin, 8 - thermometer tube, 9 - brass tip.

local) O-ring. To reduce the exchange of air inside the pipe, dense felt (felt) rings 4 are also strengthened on the rod 5.

A rod with a thermometer is inserted into an ebonite or vinyl flex pipe 8 with a copper or brass tip 9.

Through the tip and metal filings, thermal contact is made between the thermometer reservoir and soil or soil. The large mass of the tip and copper filings provides

during installation, the pipes are connected by metal or plastic couplings, which are placed on a putty made of lead

Rice. 1.7.6. Installation of exhaust soil-depth thermometers.

minium; wooden rods are connected by a blind or swivel joint.

1.7.4. Rules for the installation of exhaust soil-depth thermometers. Installation of exhaustsoil-deepthermometers are made using a drill, for which vertical wells of the appropriate depth and such a diameter are made so that the pipes can easily enter them. At the same time, the gap between the soil and the pipe is not allowed to exclude the inflow of outside air.

to pipe tip.

IN cases of absence of a drill or in conditions of stony soil at a meteorological site where the use of a drill is not possible, to install exhaust soil-depth thermometers, a special pit with steps is dug, as narrow as possible.

it is necessary to fold it aside, without mixing it, in order to preserve the natural sequence of the soil layers when filling the pit. For better shrinkage of the soil in the pit, it is poured with water and rammed.

So that the pipes do not loosen in the soil and are not subject to breakage, the protruding part of each pipe should be strengthened with three wire braces stretched from the clamps to the pegs firmly driven into the ground. Instead of wire braces, it is possible to strengthen the pipes with a common longitudinal wooden lath. Such fastening of pipes of exhaust soil-depth thermometers is more effective on weak, peaty and soaking soils, where guy wires, as a rule, do not hold.

1.7.5. Rules for checking the depth of installation of exhaust soil-depth thermometers and rules for caring for thermometers.

To check the installation depth of the thermometer, you need to measure the length of the rod together with the thermometer frame attached to it and subtract from it the length of the above-ground part of the pipe. The difference should be equal to the installation depth of the thermometer.

You must also make sure that the copper tip of the thermometer is firmly attached to the bottom of the pipe. To do this, screw the cap with the ring on the upper end of the wooden rod and immerse the rod into the pipe until it stops. If the upper end of the rod is flush with the cut of the pipe, then the tip of the thermometer frame touches the bottom of the pipe and the thermometer is installed correctly. If the end of the wooden rod falls below the cut of the pipe, then with the cap screwed on, the thermometer hangs in the pipe, without touching the bottom of the pipe with the copper tip of the frame.

It is also unacceptable that the end of the wooden rod of the thermometer protrude above the pipe cut. With such a violation, the felt pad on the cap cover loosely closes the pipe, i.e., the cap hangs over the thermometer pipe, and the inflow of outside air distorts the actual soil temperature.

It should be borne in mind that the stem of the thermometer may protrude from the pipe due to clogging of the lower end of the pipe. Checking and cleaning the bottom of the pipe is done with a rag mounted on a long stick.

The installation depth of thermometers can also be controlled by the applied marks. The marks are applied to the pipes with oil paint, their width is approximately 0.5-0.7 cm; the lower edge of the mark should be at the level of the soil surface.

Constantly, and especially after the reinstallation of exhaust soil-depth thermometers, it is necessary to monitor whether there is a depression near the thermometers due to subsidence of the soil.

At least once a month, the installation of thermometers is checked. In addition, after heavy rains and snow melt, it is necessary to check whether the pipes of the exhaust thermometers are leaking water. To do this, wrap the end of a long stick with a piece of soft clean cloth or filter paper,

This glass ball is called Campbell-Stokes heliograph and is located on the premises of the meteorological office in Darwin, Australia. Previously, it served to measure the intensity of sunlight, and now it is used mainly as a demonstration of extremely simple, but at the same time very accurate scientific instruments of the past. The Campbell-Stokes heliograph is one of the simplest meteorological devices that can be used even today because it provides very accurate measurements comparable to modern electronic instruments.

The principle of operation of the heliograph

A heliograph measures the intensity of sunlight on any given day, just as effectively as a thermometer measures temperature or a barometer measures air pressure. The device consists of a hard glass sphere, usually about 10 centimeters in diameter, that concentrates the sun's rays into a single spot on a calibration paper, resulting in a burn track. When the sun moves across the sky, its rays leave a burnt mark on the paper. The width of the burn indicates the time, intensity and duration of the sun's shine during the day. Thanks to this simple idea, meteorologists can clearly determine the cloudiness of the sky on any measured day.

credit: Cambridge BayWeather/Wikimedia

How the Campbell-Stokes heliograph was invented

The heliograph was invented by the famous Scottish writer and scientist John Francis Campbell in 1853. He noticed that on a sunny day, his magnifying glass, left on the table with papers, leaves a small burn on them. Thus, Campbell decided to create a device that could record the intensity of sunlight during the day. The scientist could not make a solid glass ball, but he found a hollow ball, which he filled with water, turning it into a large lens. He then placed it over a wooden bowl so that a concentrated beam of sunlight fell on its rim. As the sun moved across the sky, a scorched path was left on the wooden rim of the plate. And every time the sun was covered by clouds, the burnt line broke off or became noticeably weaker. The duration of the break in the burn line on the plate indicated how long the sun remained covered, and the position of the breaks on it indicated the time of day. Campbell also found that the more active the sun, the deeper the burn.

credit: Cambridge BayWeather/Wikimedia

Campbell's device was so simple and effective that it was quickly adopted by meteorologists. In 1879, the Irish physicist Stokes replaced the wooden frame with a metal one, adding interchangeable paper cards to record the burn. Since then, the device has become known as the Campbell-Stokes heliograph. It has been the standard instrument for recording sunlight in many parts of the world for over a hundred years, making it a good source of long-term, reliable data. Many old burn maps that have been collecting dust in the libraries of observatories and universities around the world for many decades are now used by researchers to study and compare the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth in different years and to study the parameters of clouds of the past.

credit: Rolf Gebhardt/Wikimedia

Although these antique instruments have now been replaced by modern electronic sensors, functioning Campbell-Stokes heliographs can still be found at many meteorological stations and observatories around the world. This article contains photos of some of them.

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