In order to determine the basic properties of the biosphere, we must first understand what we are dealing with. What is the form of its organization and existence? How does it work and interact with the outside world? Ultimately, what is it?

From the appearance of the term at the end of the 19th century to the creation of a holistic doctrine by the biogeochemist and philosopher V.I. Vernadsky, the definition of the concept of "biosphere" has undergone significant changes. It has moved from the category of a place or territory where living organisms live to the category of a system consisting of elements or parts, functioning according to certain rules to achieve a specific goal. It is on how to consider the biosphere that it depends on what properties are inherent in it.

The term is based on ancient Greek words: βιος - life and σφαρα - sphere or ball. That is, it is some shell of the Earth, where there is life. Earth, as an independent planet, according to scientists, arose about 4.5 billion years ago, and a billion years later life appeared on it.

Archean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic eon. Eons are made up of eras. The latter consists of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Eras from periods. Cenozoic from the Paleogene and Neogene. Periods from epochs. The current - Holocene - began 11.7 thousand years ago.

Borders and layers of propagation

The biosphere has a vertical and horizontal distribution. Vertically, it is conventionally divided into three layers where life exists. These are the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The lower boundary of the lithosphere reaches 7.5 km from the Earth's surface. The hydrosphere is located between the lithosphere and the atmosphere. Its maximum depth is 11 km. The atmosphere covers the planet from above and life in it exists, presumably, at an altitude of up to 20 km.

In addition to vertical layers, the biosphere has a horizontal division or zoning. This is a change in the natural environment from the Earth's equator to its poles. The planet has the shape of a ball and therefore the amount of light and heat entering its surface is different. The largest zones are geographical zones. Starting from the equator, it goes first equatorial, above tropical, then temperate, and finally, near the poles - arctic or antarctic. Inside the belts are natural zones: forests, steppes, deserts, tundras, and so on. These zones are characteristic not only for land, but also for the oceans. The horizontal location of the biosphere has its own altitude. It is determined by the surface structure of the lithosphere and differs from the foot of the mountain to its top.

To date, the flora and fauna of our planet has about 3,000,000 species, and this is only 5% of the total number of species that have managed to "live" on Earth. About 1.5 million animal species and 0.5 million plant species have found their description in science. There are not only undescribed species, but also unexplored regions of the Earth, the species content of which is unknown.

Thus, the biosphere has a temporal and spatial characteristic, and the species composition of living organisms that fills it changes both in time and in space - vertically and horizontally. This led scientists to the conclusion that the biosphere is not a planar structure and has signs of temporal and spatial variability. It remains to determine, under the influence of what external factor, it changes in time, space and structure. That factor is solar energy.

If we accept that the species of all living organisms, regardless of the spatial and temporal framework, are parts, and their totality is the whole, then their interaction with each other and with the external environment is a system. L von Bertalanffy and F.I. Peregudov, defining a system, argued that it is a complex of interacting components, or a set of elements that are in relationship with each other and with the environment, or a set of interconnected elements that are isolated from the environment and interact with it as a whole.

System

The biosphere as a single integral system can be conditionally divided into its constituent parts. The most common such division is species. Each type of animal or plant is taken as an integral part of the system. It can also be recognized as a system, with its own structure and composition. But the species does not exist in isolation. Its representatives live in a certain territory, where they interact not only with each other and the environment, but also with other species. Such a residence of species, in one area, is called an ecosystem. The smallest ecosystem, in turn, is included in the larger one. That in even more and so to the global - to the biosphere. Thus, the biosphere, as a system, can be considered as consisting of parts, which are either species or biospheres. The only difference is that a species can be identified because it has features that distinguish it from others. It is independent and in other types - parts are not included. With biospheres, such a distinction is impossible - one part of the other.

signs

The system has two more significant features. It was created to achieve a specific goal and the functioning of the whole system is more effective than each of its parts separately.

Thus, the properties as a system, in its integrity, synergy and hierarchy. Integrity lies in the fact that the connections between its parts or internal connections are much stronger than with the environment or external ones. Synergy or systemic effect is that the capabilities of the entire system are much greater than the sum of the capabilities of its parts. And, although each element of the system is a system itself, nevertheless, it is only a part of the general and larger one. This is its hierarchy.

The biosphere is a dynamic system that changes its state under external influence. It is open because it exchanges matter and energy with the environment. It has a complex structure, as it consists of subsystems. And finally, it is a natural system - formed as a result of natural changes over many years.

Thanks to these qualities, she can regulate and organize herself. These are the basic properties of the biosphere.

In the middle of the 20th century, the concept of self-regulation was first used by the American physiologist Walter Cannon, and the English psychiatrist and cybernetician William Ross Ashby introduced the term self-organization and formulated the law of required diversity. This cybernetic law formally proved the need for a large species diversity for the stability of the system. The greater the diversity, the higher the probability of the system to maintain its dynamic stability in the face of large external influences.

Properties

Responding to external influence, resisting and overcoming it, reproducing itself and restoring, that is, maintaining its internal constancy, such is the goal of a system called the biosphere. These qualities of the whole system are built on the ability of its part, which is the species, to maintain a certain number or homeostasis, as well as each individual or living organism to maintain its physiological conditions - homeostasis.

As you can see, these properties developed in her under the influence and to counteract external factors.

The main external factor is solar energy. If the number of chemical elements and compounds is limited, then the energy of the Sun is constantly supplied. Thanks to it, the migration of elements along the food chain from one living organism to another and the transformation from an inorganic state to an organic one and vice versa occurs. Energy accelerates the course of these processes inside living organisms and, in terms of the reaction rate, they occur much faster than in the external environment. The amount of energy stimulates the growth, reproduction and increase in the number of species. Diversity, in turn, provides an opportunity for additional resistance to external influences, since there is a possibility of duplication, hedging or replacement of species in the food chain. The migration of elements will thus be additionally ensured.

Human influence

The only part of the biosphere that is not interested in increasing the species diversity of the system is man. He strives in every possible way to simplify ecosystems, because in this way he can more effectively monitor and regulate it, depending on his needs. Therefore, all biosystems artificially created by man or the degree of his influence, on which is significant, are very scarce in terms of species. And their stability and ability to self-healing and self-regulation tends to zero.

With the advent of the first living organisms, they began to change the conditions of existence on Earth to suit their needs. With the advent of man, he already began to change the biosphere of the planet so that his life was as comfortable as possible. It is comfortable, because we are not talking about survival or saving life. Following logic, something should appear that will change the person himself for its own purposes. I wonder what it will be?

Video - Biosphere and noosphere

The main media of the biosphere: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere (soil)

The biosphere is a system with direct and reverse (negative and positive) links, which, ultimately, provide the mechanisms for its functioning and stability. The biosphere is a centralized system. Living organisms (living matter) act as its central link. This property is comprehensively disclosed by V.I. Vernadsky, but, unfortunately, is often underestimated by man at the present time: only one species is placed at the center of the biosphere or its links - man (anthropocentrism).

atmospheres a- the gaseous shell of the Earth, This is a natural mixture of gases that has developed during the evolution of the planet. At present, the atmosphere contains 78.08% nitrogen (N 2), 20.9% oxygen (0 2), about 1% argon (Ar) and 0.03% carbon dioxide (CO 2).

Earth's atmosphere is unique. The oxygen contained in the air is vital for the respiration of plants and animals. Currently, there is an approximate balance between the production of oxygen and its consumption. However, heavy consumption 0 2 industry and transport has recently raised concerns about disturbing the balance of oxygen in the environment.

Carbon dioxide has a significant impact on the temperature of the planet. Possessing a higher density than oxygen or nitrogen, this gas densely covers the water and soil cover of the Earth. By itself, CO 2 is a dangerous component of the atmosphere for all living things. An increase in the content of CO 2 in the surface layer of the atmosphere can lead to the mass destruction of living things in the soil cover and the deterioration of its fertility.

Unlike oxygen, which is supplied to the atmosphere by green plants, carbon dioxide is captured by these same plants and bound into organic compounds. In the process of respiration, the carbon of organic compounds turns into carbon dioxide.

Nitrogen, which is part of the atmospheric air in the largest quantities, is a chemically inert gas (translated from Greek - "lifeless"). In the air, it is in a molecular state inactive. Nitrogen practically does not participate in geochemical processes and only accumulates in the atmosphere. At the same time, N 2 is the most important building material for proteins, nucleic acids and other compounds. It becomes an element of life only in chemical compounds - easily soluble nitrate and ammonia salts. However, there is no bound nitrogen in the air, and under normal conditions most organisms are unable to extract it from the atmosphere.

The atmosphere not only supports life, but also serves as a protective screen. At a height of 20-25 km from the Earth's surface, under the influence of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, some of the oxygen molecules are split into free atoms. The latter can again enter into compounds with O 2 molecules and form its triatomic form 0 3 - ozone.

Ozone plays an exceptional role in the life of the planet. It forms a thin layer in the upper layers of the atmosphere - the so-called ozone screen, which filters out the harmful component of solar radiation - ultraviolet rays. The direct influence of these rays is detrimental to all living things. Without the ozone layer, this radiation would destroy life on Earth.

The gaseous envelope protects the Earth from meteorite bombardment. Most meteorites never reach the earth's surface, as they burn up when they enter the atmosphere at great speed.

In addition, the atmosphere contributes to the conservation of heat on the planet, which would otherwise be dissipated in the cold of outer space. Solar energy penetrating in the form of short electromagnetic waves through the atmosphere to the earth's surface is largely reflected from it in the form of longer waves, which are partially delayed and screened by the lower layers of the atmosphere back to the earth's surface. So our planet uses solar heat twice. Without this effect, life on Earth would be impossible, since the primary rays of the Sun heat its surface only to -18 ° C. The thermal energy flows reflected by the troposphere increase this average temperature to +15 °C. At a given temperature, the surface of the planet and the atmosphere are in thermal equilibrium. Heated by the energy of the Sun and the infrared radiation of the atmosphere, the surface of the Earth returns an average equivalent amount of energy to the atmosphere.

The heating of the atmosphere occurs due to the presence in it of the so-called greenhouse gases; carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides and water vapor, which are capable, on the one hand, of absorbing (catching) the infrared radiation of the Earth, and on the other hand, of reflecting part of it back to the Earth. Without a "gas blanket" enveloping the planet, the temperature on its surface would be 30-40 ° C lower, and the existence of living organisms in such conditions is very problematic,

Hydrosphere - one of the most important components of our planet, uniting all free waters. It occupies about 70% of the earth's surface. The total free water reserves are 1386 million km 3 . If this water were to evenly cover the globe, then its layer would be 3700 m. At the same time, 97-98% of the water is the salt water of the seas and oceans. And only 2-3% is fresh water necessary for life. 75% of fresh water on Earth is in the form of ice, a significant part of it is groundwater, and only 1% is available to living organisms.

Water is part of all elements of the biosphere. It is an integral part of not only water bodies, but also air, soil, and living beings.

Water is the source of life; without it, neither animals, nor plants, nor man can exist. It is part of the cells and tissues of any animal and plant. The most complex reactions in animal and plant organisms can proceed only in the presence of water. The human body is 65% water. The bodies of animals contain, as a rule, at least 50% water. Plants also contain a lot of water: potatoes - 80%, tomatoes - 95%, etc.

Under the influence of solar energy and gravitational forces, the waters of the Earth can move from one state to another and are in continuous motion. The water cycle links together all parts of the biosphere, forming a closed system as a whole; ocean - atmosphere - land.

The hydrosphere plays a decisive role in shaping the special features of the planet. It is of great importance in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the atmosphere, contributes to the maintenance of a relatively unchanged climate, which allowed life to reproduce for more than 3 billion years. The climate on Earth largely depends on water spaces and the content of water vapor in the atmosphere. The oceans and seas have a moderating, regulating effect on air temperature, storing heat in summer and releasing it to the atmosphere in winter. Warm and cold waters circulate and mix in the ocean.

In the hydrosphere, the main number of chemical reactions occur, which determine the production of biomass and the chemical purification of the biosphere. The factors of self-purification of water bodies are numerous and diverse. Conventionally, they can be divided into three groups: physical, chemical and biological.

Among physical factors, dilution, dissolution and mixing of substances are of paramount importance. This is facilitated by the intensive flow of rivers. In addition, the purification process is affected by the settling of insoluble sediments in water, as well as the settling of polluted waters. An important physical factor of self-purification is the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. Under its influence, bacteria, viruses, microbes die.

Of the chemical factors of self-purification, it should be noted the oxidation of organic and inorganic substances with oxygen dissolved in water.

An active role in the self-purification of the hydrosphere is played by the combined activity of all organisms inhabiting water bodies. In the processes of vital activity, they oxidize (decompose) organic pollutants.

In addition to all of the above, the hydrosphere is an important source of food for people and other inhabitants of the land, a source of valuable raw materials and fuel. Oceans, seas, rivers and other bodies of water are natural routes of communication and have recreational value.

Lithosphere (soil). Soil - the surface layer of the earth's crust, created under the combined influence of external conditions: heat, water, air, plant and animal organisms, especially microorganisms. This is the result of the patient centuries-old work of nature. The earth accumulated it for many millennia at a very slow rate: 1 cm of black soil in 100-300 years.

The soil has specific physical properties: friability, water permeability, aerability, etc. Substances necessary for plant nutrition - nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and others - are concentrated in the upper layers of the soil. It is a habitat for many microorganisms and burrowing animals. Here, a vital exchange of mineral substances takes place between the biosphere and the inorganic world: plants receive water and nutrients, and the leaves and branches, dying, return to the soil, where they decompose, releasing the minerals they contain. Thus, the role of the soil is diverse: on the one hand, it is an important site for all natural cycles, on the other hand, it is the basis for the production of biomass.

Soil is the main foundation of life, a unique and at the same time vulnerable natural formation.

In order to determine the basic properties of the biosphere, we must first understand what we are dealing with. What is the form of its organization and existence? How does it work and interact with the outside world? Ultimately, what is it?

From the appearance of the term at the end of the 19th century to the creation of a holistic doctrine by the biogeochemist and philosopher V.I. Vernadsky, the definition of the concept of "biosphere" has undergone significant changes. It has moved from the category of a place or territory where living organisms live to the category of a system consisting of elements or parts, functioning according to certain rules to achieve a specific goal. It is on how to consider the biosphere that it depends on what properties are inherent in it.

The term is based on ancient Greek words: βιος - life and σφαρα - sphere or ball. That is, it is some shell of the Earth, where there is life. Earth, as an independent planet, according to scientists, arose about 4.5 billion years ago, and a billion years later life appeared on it.

Archean, Proterozoic and Phanerozoic eon. Eons are made up of eras. The latter consists of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Eras from periods. Cenozoic from the Paleogene and Neogene. Periods from epochs. The current - Holocene - began 11.7 thousand years ago.

Borders and layers of propagation

The biosphere has a vertical and horizontal distribution. Vertically, it is conventionally divided into three layers where life exists. These are the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. The lower boundary of the lithosphere reaches 7.5 km from the Earth's surface. The hydrosphere is located between the lithosphere and the atmosphere. Its maximum depth is 11 km. The atmosphere covers the planet from above and life in it exists, presumably, at an altitude of up to 20 km.

In addition to vertical layers, the biosphere has a horizontal division or zoning. This is a change in the natural environment from the Earth's equator to its poles. The planet has the shape of a ball and therefore the amount of light and heat entering its surface is different. The largest zones are geographical zones. Starting from the equator, it goes first equatorial, above tropical, then temperate, and finally, near the poles - arctic or antarctic. Inside the belts are natural zones: forests, steppes, deserts, tundras, and so on. These zones are characteristic not only for land, but also for the oceans. The horizontal location of the biosphere has its own altitude. It is determined by the surface structure of the lithosphere and differs from the foot of the mountain to its top.

To date, the flora and fauna of our planet has about 3,000,000 species, and this is only 5% of the total number of species that have managed to "live" on Earth. About 1.5 million animal species and 0.5 million plant species have found their description in science. There are not only undescribed species, but also unexplored regions of the Earth, the species content of which is unknown.

Thus, the biosphere has a temporal and spatial characteristic, and the species composition of living organisms that fills it changes both in time and in space - vertically and horizontally. This led scientists to the conclusion that the biosphere is not a planar structure and has signs of temporal and spatial variability. It remains to determine, under the influence of what external factor, it changes in time, space and structure. That factor is solar energy.

If we accept that the species of all living organisms, regardless of the spatial and temporal framework, are parts, and their totality is the whole, then their interaction with each other and with the external environment is a system. L von Bertalanffy and F.I. Peregudov, defining a system, argued that it is a complex of interacting components, or a set of elements that are in relationship with each other and with the environment, or a set of interconnected elements that are isolated from the environment and interact with it as a whole.

System

The biosphere as a single integral system can be conditionally divided into its constituent parts. The most common such division is species. Each type of animal or plant is taken as an integral part of the system. It can also be recognized as a system, with its own structure and composition. But the species does not exist in isolation. Its representatives live in a certain territory, where they interact not only with each other and the environment, but also with other species. Such a residence of species, in one area, is called an ecosystem. The smallest ecosystem, in turn, is included in the larger one. That in even more and so to the global - to the biosphere. Thus, the biosphere, as a system, can be considered as consisting of parts, which are either species or biospheres. The only difference is that a species can be identified because it has features that distinguish it from others. It is independent and in other types - parts are not included. With biospheres, such a distinction is impossible - one part of the other.

signs

The system has two more significant features. It was created to achieve a specific goal and the functioning of the whole system is more effective than each of its parts separately.

Thus, the properties as a system, in its integrity, synergy and hierarchy. Integrity lies in the fact that the connections between its parts or internal connections are much stronger than with the environment or external ones. Synergy or systemic effect is that the capabilities of the entire system are much greater than the sum of the capabilities of its parts. And, although each element of the system is a system itself, nevertheless, it is only a part of the general and larger one. This is its hierarchy.

The biosphere is a dynamic system that changes its state under external influence. It is open because it exchanges matter and energy with the environment. It has a complex structure, as it consists of subsystems. And finally, it is a natural system - formed as a result of natural changes over many years.

Thanks to these qualities, she can regulate and organize herself. These are the basic properties of the biosphere.

In the middle of the 20th century, the concept of self-regulation was first used by the American physiologist Walter Cannon, and the English psychiatrist and cybernetician William Ross Ashby introduced the term self-organization and formulated the law of required diversity. This cybernetic law formally proved the need for a large species diversity for the stability of the system. The greater the diversity, the higher the probability of the system to maintain its dynamic stability in the face of large external influences.

Properties

Responding to external influence, resisting and overcoming it, reproducing itself and restoring, that is, maintaining its internal constancy, such is the goal of a system called the biosphere. These qualities of the whole system are built on the ability of its part, which is the species, to maintain a certain number or homeostasis, as well as each individual or living organism to maintain its physiological conditions - homeostasis.

As you can see, these properties developed in her under the influence and to counteract external factors.

The main external factor is solar energy. If the number of chemical elements and compounds is limited, then the energy of the Sun is constantly supplied. Thanks to it, the migration of elements along the food chain from one living organism to another and the transformation from an inorganic state to an organic one and vice versa occurs. Energy accelerates the course of these processes inside living organisms and, in terms of the reaction rate, they occur much faster than in the external environment. The amount of energy stimulates the growth, reproduction and increase in the number of species. Diversity, in turn, provides an opportunity for additional resistance to external influences, since there is a possibility of duplication, hedging or replacement of species in the food chain. The migration of elements will thus be additionally ensured.

Human influence

The only part of the biosphere that is not interested in increasing the species diversity of the system is man. He strives in every possible way to simplify ecosystems, because in this way he can more effectively monitor and regulate it, depending on his needs. Therefore, all biosystems artificially created by man or the degree of his influence, on which is significant, are very scarce in terms of species. And their stability and ability to self-healing and self-regulation tends to zero.

With the advent of the first living organisms, they began to change the conditions of existence on Earth to suit their needs. With the advent of man, he already began to change the biosphere of the planet so that his life was as comfortable as possible. It is comfortable, because we are not talking about survival or saving life. Following logic, something should appear that will change the person himself for its own purposes. I wonder what it will be?

Video - Biosphere and noosphere

Anthropogenic impact on nature is currently penetrating into all areas, so it is necessary to briefly consider the characteristics of the individual shells of the Earth.

The earth consists of the core, mantle, crust, lithosphere, hydrosphere and. Due to the impact of living matter and human activity, two more shells arose - the biosphere and the noosphere, including the technosphere. Human activity extends to the hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere and noosphere. Let us briefly consider these shells and the nature of the impact of human activity on them.

General characteristics of the atmosphere

The outer gaseous shell of the Earth. The lower part is in contact with the lithosphere or, and the upper part is in contact with interplanetary space. consists of three parts:

1. Troposphere (lower part) and its height above the surface is 15 km. The troposphere consists of , the density of which decreases with height. The upper part of the troposphere is in contact with the ozone screen - an ozone layer 7-8 km thick.

The ozone shield prevents hard ultraviolet radiation or high-energy cosmic radiation from reaching the Earth's surface (lithosphere, hydrosphere), which are detrimental to all living things. The lower layers of the troposphere - up to 5 km from sea level - are an air habitat, while the lowest layers are most densely populated - up to 100 m from the land surface or. The greatest impact from human activity, which has the greatest ecological significance, is experienced by the troposphere and especially its lower layers.

2. Stratosphere - the middle layer, the limit of which is a height of 100 km above sea level. The stratosphere is filled with rarefied gas (nitrogen, hydrogen, helium, etc.). It goes into the ionosphere.

3. Ionosphere - the upper layer, passing into interplanetary space. The ionosphere is filled with particles arising from the decay of molecules - ions, electrons, etc. In the lower part of the ionosphere, the "northern lights" appear, which is observed in areas beyond the Arctic Circle.

In ecological terms, the troposphere is of the greatest importance.

Brief description of the lithosphere and hydrosphere

The surface of the Earth, located under the troposphere, is heterogeneous - part of it is occupied by water, which forms the hydrosphere, and part is land, which forms the lithosphere.

Lithosphere - the outer hard shell of the globe, formed by rocks (hence the name - "cast" - stone). It consists of two layers - the upper, formed by sedimentary rocks with granite, and the lower, formed by solid basalt rocks. Part of the lithosphere is occupied by water (), and part is land, making up about 30% of the earth's surface. The topmost layer of land (for the most part) is covered with a thin layer of fertile surface - soil. The soil is one of the environments of life, and the lithosphere is the substrate on which various organisms live.

Hydrosphere - the water shell of the earth's surface, formed by the totality of all water bodies on Earth. The thickness of the hydrosphere is different in different areas, but the average depth of the ocean is 3.8 km, and in some depressions - up to 11 km. The hydrosphere is a source of water for all organisms living on Earth, it is a powerful geological force that cycles water and other substances, the "cradle of life" and the habitat of aquatic organisms. The anthropogenic impact on the hydrosphere is also great and will be discussed below.

General characteristics of the biosphere and noosphere

Since the appearance of life on Earth, a new, specific shell has arisen - the biosphere. The term "biosphere" was introduced by E. Suess (1875).

The biosphere (sphere of life) is that part of the shells of the Earth in which various organisms live. The biosphere occupies a part (the lower part of the troposphere), the lithosphere (the upper part, including the soil) and permeates the entire hydrosphere and the upper part of the bottom surface.

The biosphere can also be defined as a geological shell inhabited by living organisms.

The boundaries of the biosphere are determined by the presence of conditions necessary for the normal functioning of organisms. The upper part of the biosphere is limited by the intensity of ultraviolet radiation, and the lower part by high temperature (up to 100°C). Bacterial spores are found at an altitude of 20 km above sea level, and anaerobic bacteria are found at a depth of up to 3 km from the earth's surface.

It is known that they are formed by living matter. The density of the biosphere is characterized by the concentration of living matter. It has been established that the highest density of the biosphere is characteristic of the land and ocean surfaces at the interface between the lithosphere and hydrosphere and the atmosphere. The density of life in the soil is very high.

The mass of living matter in comparison with the mass of the earth's crust and hydrosphere is small, but plays a huge role in the processes of change in the earth's crust.

The biosphere is the totality of all biogeocenoses on Earth, therefore it is considered the highest ecosystem of the Earth. Everything in the biosphere is interconnected and interdependent. The gene pool of all organisms on the Earth ensures the relative stability and renewability of the biological resources of the planet, if there is no sharp interference in natural ecological processes by various forces of a geological or interplanetary nature. At present, as mentioned above, anthropogenic factors affecting the biosphere have taken on the character of a geological force, which must be taken into account by humanity if it wants to survive on Earth.

Since the appearance of man on Earth, anthropogenic factors have arisen in nature, the effect of which is intensifying with the development of civilization, and a new specific shell of the Earth has arisen - the noosphere (the sphere of intelligent life). The term "noosphere" was first introduced by E. Leroy and T. Ya. de Chardin (1927), and in Russia for the first time in his works was used by V. I. Vernadsky (30-40s of the XX century). In the interpretation of the term "noosphere" there are two approaches:

1. "The noosphere is that part of the biosphere where human economic activity is carried out." The author of this concept was LN Gumilyov (son of the poetess A. Akhmatova and the poet N. Gumilyov). This point of view is correct if it is necessary to single out human activity in the biosphere, to show its difference from the activity of other organisms. Such a concept characterizes the "narrow sense" of the essence of the noosphere as the shell of the Earth.

2. "The noosphere is the biosphere, the development of which is directed by the human mind." This concept is widely represented in and is a concept in a broad understanding of the essence of the noosphere, since the influence of the human mind on the biosphere can be both positive and negative, the latter very often prevailing. The composition of the noosphere includes the technosphere - a part of the noosphere associated with the production activity of man.

At the present stage of the development of civilization and population, it is necessary to “reasonably” influence Nature, optimally influence it in order to bring minimal harm to natural ecological processes, restore destroyed or disturbed biogeocenoses, and even on human life as an integral part of the biosphere. Human activity inevitably makes changes to the world around, but, given the possible consequences, anticipating possible negative impacts, it is necessary to make sure that these consequences are the least destructive.

Brief description of emergency situations that occur on the surface of the Earth, and their classification

An important role in natural ecological processes is played by emergencies that constantly arise on the surface of the Earth. They destroy local biogeocenoses, and, if repeated cyclically, in some cases they are environmental factors that contribute to the evolutionary processes.

Situations in which the normal functioning of a large number of people or the biogeocenosis as a whole becomes difficult or impossible are called emergency.

The concept of "emergency situations" is more applicable to human activities, but it also applies to natural communities.

By origin, emergencies are divided into natural and anthropogenic (technogenic).

Natural emergencies arise as a result of natural phenomena. These include floods, earthquakes, landslides, mudflows, hurricanes, eruptions, etc. Consider some of the phenomena that cause natural emergencies.

This is a sudden release of the potential energy of the earth's interior, which takes the form of shock waves and elastic vibrations (seismic waves).

Earthquakes occur mainly due to underground volcanic phenomena, the displacement of layers relative to each other, but they can also be man-made in nature and occur due to the collapse of mineral excavations. During earthquakes, displacements, vibrations and vibrations of rocks from seismic waves and tectonic movements of the earth's crust occur, which leads to the destruction of the surface - the appearance of cracks, faults, etc., as well as to the occurrence of fires, the destruction of buildings.

Landslides - sliding displacement of rocks downslope from inclined surfaces (mountains, hills, sea terraces, etc.) under the influence of gravity.

During landslides, the surface is disturbed, biocenoses die, settlements are destroyed, etc. The greatest damage is caused by very deep landslides, the depth of which exceeds 20 meters.

Volcanism (volcanic eruptions) is a set of phenomena associated with the movement of magma (molten rock mass), hot gases and water vapor rising through channels or cracks in the earth's crust.

Volcanism is a typical natural phenomenon that causes great destruction of natural biogeocenoses, brings great damage to human economic activity, and heavily pollutes the region adjacent to volcanoes. Volcanic eruptions are accompanied by other catastrophic natural phenomena - fires, landslides, floods, etc.

Mudflows are short-term stormy floods that carry a large amount of sand, pebbles, large rubble and stones, which have the character of mud-stone flows.

Mudflows are characteristic of mountainous regions and can cause significant damage to human activities, cause the death of various animals and cause the destruction of local plant communities.

Snow avalanches are called avalanches of snow, carrying with them more and more masses of snow and other bulk materials. Avalanches are of both natural and anthropogenic origin. They cause great damage to human economic activity, destroying roads, power lines, causing death of people, animals and plant communities.

The above phenomena, which are the cause of emergency situations, are closely related to the lithosphere. Natural phenomena that create emergency situations are also possible in the hydrosphere. These include floods and tsunamis.

Floods are the flooding of areas with water within river valleys, lake coasts, seas and oceans.

If floods are strictly periodic in nature (tides, ebbs), then in this case natural biogeocenoses are adapted to them as to a habitat under certain conditions. But often floods are unexpected and associated with individual non-periodic phenomena (excessive snowfall in winter creates conditions for the occurrence of extensive floods that cause flooding of a large area, etc.). During floods, soil covers are disturbed, the area may be contaminated with various wastes due to the erosion of their storage facilities, the death of animals, plants and people, the destruction of settlements, etc.

Gravitational waves of great strength arising on the surface of the seas and oceans.

Tsunamis have natural and man-made causes. Earthquakes, seaquakes and underwater volcanic eruptions are classified as natural causes, underwater nuclear explosions as man-made causes.

Tsunamis cause the death of ships and accidents on them, which in turn leads to pollution of the natural environment, for example, the destruction of a tanker transporting oil will lead to pollution of a huge water surface with an oil film that is poisonous to plankton and pelargic forms of animals (plankton are suspended small organisms, living in the surface layer of the water of the ocean or other body of water; pelargic forms of animals - animals that freely move in the water column due to active movement, for example, sharks, whales, cephalopods; benthic forms of organisms - organisms leading a benthic lifestyle, for example, flounder, hermit crabs , echinoderms, algae attached to the bottom, etc.). Tsunamis cause strong mixing of waters, the transfer of organisms to an unusual habitat and death.

There are also phenomena that cause emergencies. These include hurricanes, tornadoes, various types of storms.

Hurricanes - tropical and extratropical cyclones, which have a greatly reduced pressure in the center, are accompanied by the occurrence of winds with high speed and destructive power.

There are weak, strong and extreme hurricanes that cause showers, sea waves and the destruction of land objects, the death of various organisms.

Vortex storms (squalls) are atmospheric phenomena associated with the occurrence of strong winds with great destructive power and a large area of ​​distribution. There are snow, dust and dustless storms. Flurries cause the transfer of the upper layers of the soil, their destruction, the death of plants, animals, and the destruction of structures.

Tornadoes (tornadoes) are a vortex-like form of movement of air masses, accompanied by the appearance of air funnels.

The power of tornadoes is great, in the area of ​​​​their movement there is a complete destruction of the soil, animals die, buildings are destroyed, objects are transferred from one place to another, causing damage to objects located there.

In addition to the natural phenomena described above, leading to the emergence of emergency situations, there are other phenomena that cause them, the cause of which is human activity. Man-made emergencies include:

1. Transport accidents. When traffic rules are violated on various highways (roads, railways, rivers, seas), vehicles, people, animals, etc. die. Various substances enter the natural environment, including those that lead to the death of organisms of all kingdoms ( such as pesticides, etc.). As a result of accidents in transport, fires and ingress into gases (hydrogen chloride, ammonia, flammable and explosive substances) are possible.

2. Accidents at large enterprises. Violation of technological processes, non-compliance with the rules of operation of equipment, imperfection of technology can cause the release of harmful compounds into the environment, causing various diseases in humans and animals, contributing to the appearance of mutations in plant and animal organisms, as well as lead to destruction of buildings and fires. The most dangerous accidents at enterprises using. Accidents at nuclear power plants (NPPs) cause great harm, since in addition to the usual damaging factors (mechanical damage, single-acting release of harmful substances, fires), accidents at NPPs are characterized by damage to the area by radionuclides, penetrating radiation, and the damage radius in this case significantly exceeds the probability of occurrence accidents at other enterprises.

3. Fires covering large areas of forests or peatlands. As a rule, such fires are anthropogenic in nature due to violation of the rules for handling fire, but they can also be natural in nature, for example, due to lightning discharges (lightning). Such fires can also be caused by faults in power lines. Fires destroy natural communities of organisms over large areas, causing great economic damage to human economic activity.

All the described phenomena that violate natural biogeocenoses, causing great damage to human economic activity, require the development and adoption of measures to reduce their negative impact, which is implemented in the implementation of environmental actions and dealing with the consequences of emergency situations.

2. Natural environment as a system. Atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere. Composition, role in the biosphere.

A system is understood as a certain conceivable or real set of parts with connections between them.

natural environment- that system whole, consisting of various functionally connected and hierarchically subordinated ecosystems, united in the biosphere. Within this system, there is a global exchange of matter and energy between all its components. This exchange is realized by changing the physical and chemical properties of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere. Any ecosystem is based on the unity of living and non-living matter, which manifests itself in the use of elements of inanimate nature, from which, thanks to solar energy, organic substances are synthesized. Simultaneously with the process of their creation, the process of consumption and decomposition into initial inorganic compounds takes place, which ensures the external and internal circulation of substances and energy. This mechanism operates in all the main components of the biosphere, which is the main condition for the sustainable development of any ecosystem. The natural environment as a system develops due to this interaction, therefore, the isolated development of the components of the natural environment is impossible. But the various components of the natural environment have different, inherent features only to them, which allows them to be identified and studied separately.

Atmosphere.

This is the gaseous shell of the Earth, consisting of a mixture of various gases, vapors and dust. It has a clearly defined layered structure. The layer closest to the Earth's surface is called the troposphere (height from 8 to 18 km). Further, at an altitude of up to 40 km, there is a layer of the stratosphere, and at an altitude of more than 50 km, the mesosphere, above which the thermosphere is located, which does not have a definite upper boundary.

The composition of the Earth's atmosphere: nitrogen 78%, oxygen 21%, argon 0.9%, water vapor 0.2 - 2.6%, carbon dioxide 0.034%, neon, helium, nitrogen oxides, ozone, krypton, methane, hydrogen.

Ecological functions of the atmosphere:

Protective function (against meteorites, cosmic radiation).

Thermoregulatory (in the atmosphere there is carbon dioxide, water, which increase the temperature of the atmosphere). The average temperature on earth is 15 degrees, if there were no carbon dioxide and water, the temperature on earth would be 30 degrees lower.

Weather and climate are formed in the atmosphere.

The atmosphere is a habitat, because it has life-sustaining functions.

the atmosphere weakly absorbs weak short-wave radiation, but delays long-wave (IR) thermal radiation of the earth's surface, which reduces the heat transfer of the Earth and increases its temperature;

The atmosphere has a number of features inherent only to it: high mobility, variability of its constituent components, originality of molecular reactions.

Hydrosphere.

This is the water shell of the Earth. It is a collection of oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, ponds, swamps, groundwater, glaciers and atmospheric water vapor.

The role of water:

is a component of living organisms; living organisms cannot do without water for a long time;

affects the composition in the surface layer of the atmosphere - supplies oxygen to it, regulates the content of carbon dioxide;

affects the climate: water has a high heat capacity, therefore, heating up during the day, it cools down more slowly at night, which makes the climate milder and more humid;

chemical reactions take place in the water, which ensure the chemical purification of the biosphere and the production of biomass;

The water cycle links together all parts of the biosphere, forming a closed system. As a result of it, the accumulation, purification and redistribution of the planetary water supply occurs;

Evaporating water from the earth's surface forms atmospheric water in the form of water vapor (greenhouse gas).

Lithosphere.

This is the upper solid shell of the Earth, includes the earth's crust and the upper mantle of the Earth. The thickness of the lithosphere is from 5 to 200 km. The lithosphere is characterized by area, relief, soil cover, vegetation, subsoil and space for human economic activity.

The lithosphere consists of two parts: the parent rock and the soil cover. The soil cover has a unique property - fertility, i.e. the ability to provide plant nutrition and their biological productivity. This determines the indispensability of the soil in agricultural production. The soil cover of the Earth is a complex environment containing solid (mineral), liquid (soil moisture) and gaseous components.

Biochemical processes in the soil determine its ability to self-purify, i.e. the ability to convert complex organic substances into simple - inorganic. Soil self-cleaning occurs more efficiently under aerobic conditions. In this case, two stages are distinguished: 1. Decay of organic substances (mineralization). 2. Synthesis of humus (humification).

The role of the soil:

the basis of all terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems (both natural and man-made).

Soil - the basis of plant nutrition provides biological productivity, i.e. it is the basis for the production of food for humans and other bionts.

The soil accumulates organic matter and various chemical elements and energy.

Cycles are not possible without soil - it regulates all the flows of matter in the biosphere.

The soil regulates the composition of the atmosphere and hydrosphere.

Soil is a biological absorber, destroyer and neutralizer of various contaminants. Soil contains half of all known microorganisms. When the soil is destroyed, the functioning that has developed in the biosphere is irreversibly disrupted, i.e., the role of the soil is colossal. Since the soil has become an object of industrial activity, this has generated a significant change in the state of land resources. These changes are not always positive.