Military figure of his time. Frederick II the Great, King of Prussia Private life of Frederick II

Born January 24, 1712 in Berlin. Two older brothers died in childhood, and Frederick became heir to the Prussian throne. The future king received a severe ascetic upbringing. His father, who was called the "soldier king" (Soldatenkönig), was a zealous Protestant, he defended the interests of his dynasty with remarkable energy and determination, creating an efficient, extremely centralized military-bureaucratic machine aimed solely at maintaining the political and military power of Prussia. In his youth, the variously gifted crown prince was fond of French literature and art, played the flute, did not shy away from secular entertainment, although they were condemned by his father, a strict puritan. Friedrich Wilhelm feared that his son's frivolous hobbies would have a detrimental effect on the fate of the heir, and hence the state, and sought to break Frederick's will; the son, in turn, did not like the ascetic lifestyle of his father and his predilection for military pursuits.

The formation of character.

When Frederick turned 18, his mother, sympathetic to his moods, conceived a double marriage: Frederick and the English princess Amelia, as well as his equally unhappy sister Wilhelmina and the Prince of Wales in his father's house. For a number of reasons, the king refused this option. Disappointed, Frederick wanted to flee to England while traveling with his father to southwestern Germany in August 1730. The plan was revealed, and Frederick was brought before a military court as a traitor. The enraged king was only going to scare his son, but the accomplice and friend of the crown prince, Lieutenant Katte, paid for his act with his life and was executed under the windows of the cell where Friedrich was kept. The prince was imprisoned in the Kustrin fortress for 6 weeks, then, by order of the king, he lived for two years in the city of Kustrin without the right to leave its borders. There he received knowledge related to agriculture, economics and public service.

In 1732, Friedrich received a regiment under his command, and in 1733, at the behest of his father, he married Princess Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick. In 1736 he was allowed to set up his own court in Rheinsberg. Here he devoted himself to the study of philosophy, history, poetry, enjoyed music, amateur theater and conversations among educated and witty people. Friedrich dreamed of the glory of the writer (he wrote in French), but over time, he increasingly felt his calling as a monarch, continuing the state and military traditions of Prussia.

Three years before ascending the throne, he wrote to his father's chief minister that the king had made the necessary preparations for war, dictated by wisdom and caution, and he, Frederick, might be destined to use these preparations and win glory. In 1739 a book was born, the title of which is - Anti-Machiavelli (Anti-Machiavell) - gave Voltaire, with whom the crown prince corresponded for a long time. In this treatise, Friedrich painted the image of a peace-loving and enlightened sovereign. The monarch is the first servant of his country, his power is unlimited, his duty is to take care of the welfare of the people. Friedrich did not hide his contempt for petty German rulers, who were satisfied only with the external attributes of power. He himself strove for real power.

early years of government.

In May 1740, the 28-year-old crown prince became King Frederick II of Prussia. His first actions - the abolition of torture and the restoration of the Academy of Sciences (it was headed by a French president) - testified that the monarch shared the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment. Moreover, in the first months of his reign, on the margins of a document, he left a famous note: “One should be tolerant of all religions ... everyone is looking for a way to salvation in his own way.” However, he had already written to Voltaire that, in the name of the interests of the state, he said goodbye to poetry, music and entertainment.

In October 1740, Emperor Charles VI died unexpectedly, and the opportunity arose that Frederick had longed for - to gain glory in the war and make important territorial gains. The Habsburg lands were inherited by Charles VI's 23-year-old daughter Maria Theresa. Her succession was based on the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, in which Charles VI declared the Austrian Empire indivisible and established a succession to the throne that allowed the crown to pass to a daughter if the emperor did not leave a son. Nevertheless, Frederick foresaw that Bavaria and other states would contest Maria Theresa's right to the Austrian hereditary lands, and decided to take advantage of Austria's apparent weakness. He intended to capture Silesia, part of which Prussia had long claimed. Had Maria Theresa agreed with his claims, Frederick would have recognized her right to the succession and helped elect her husband as emperor. Against the advice of his foreign minister, he decided to strike first and then move on to negotiations. Using the surprise factor, he easily captured Silesia, but Maria Theresa was not going to give up. A series of diplomatic demarches followed, and the War of the Austrian Succession began.

In this war, Frederick's aggressive policy made him famous as a commander, but his diplomacy - however, like the diplomacy of most of his opponents - did not take much into account the principle of the inviolability of treaties. So, in 1742, he deceived his French allies, secretly concluding a Breslau separate peace with Austria, and left the war (1st Silesian War). In 1744, he - again with the support of France - resumed the war with Austria (2nd Silesian War), which ended with the Treaty of Dresden (1745), which secured most of Silesia to Prussia.

Lifestyle.

Hasty, albeit successful, actions in Silesia expanded the scope of Frederick's duties. And yet he continued to be keenly interested in literature, philosophy and music. According to Voltaire, his capital was "Sparta in the morning and Athens in the evening". The life of the king was controlled by a clock and a calendar, Frederick slept only five or six hours a day and, constantly doing state affairs, found time for a training ground, for receiving guests, and for studying literature and music. The year was rigidly planned - regular visits to numerous residence palaces, maneuvers and inspection trips.

In 1750, the king persuaded Voltaire to settle in Berlin and made him his personal secretary, but in six months these two brilliant people ceased to build illusions about each other's characters, and close communication for more than two years ended in a complete break (but their correspondence continued). Voltaire assisted Friedrich in his work on Memoirs concerning the history of Brandenburg, published in 1751. The king also wrote a more extensive historical study called History of my time; however, these works became available to the reading public only in the middle of the 19th century, and his Political reflections and Political correspondence were published only in the 20th century.

Government system.

Frederick understood well that in order to hold Silesia, Prussia must remain strong and constantly on the alert; to this he gave all his strength for ten years of peace - from the Dresden Peace to the beginning of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). He adhered to the extreme form of autocracy introduced by his father, which involved the concentration of all power in the hands of the monarch. Wherever the king was, the ministers sent him reports and proposals in writing, which he approved, making meaningful remarks in the margins. On their basis, cabinet secretaries drew up decrees signed by him, which were then enforced by government departments.

“A well-functioning government,” the king wrote in 1752, “should represent a system as tightly connected as a system of concepts in philosophy. All his decisions should be well justified; economic, foreign and military policy should contribute to a single goal - to consolidate the power of the state and increase its power. For the sake of this goal, Frederick sought to improve the system of government, which had reached a high degree of centralization even under his father.

The General Directory created by his father gradually lost importance under Frederick, who, in his impatience, demanded immediate results. Until 1756, three independently functioning ministries were introduced, and after the Seven Years' War, several new departments, including the royal department, which had a bad reputation. The new ministries and departments were responsible only to the king, who personally managed the country's economy.

Economic development.

The king sought to improve the welfare of his subjects, but did so only for the sake of developing and strengthening state power. First of all, he increased human resources in sparsely populated possessions - empty lands were forcibly developed, hundreds of new settlements were created, land cultivation was improved, new agricultural crops were introduced, such as potatoes. The resettlement of people from neighboring countries was encouraged. People with capital and technical skills were especially welcome if they contributed to the growth of new forms of production and the development of industry. Trade was benefited by improved means of communication, such as the construction of canals to serve Berlin.

These processes were started by Friedrich Wilhelm I, who patronized the local textile industry. Friedrich expanded textile production, introduced the production of silk fabrics. The main goal of his economic policy was the development of industry for the needs of the country, and, if possible, the production of goods for export - including luxury goods that were previously imported from other countries. Although progress was slow at first, some cities, most notably Berlin, greatly increased the output of manufactured goods towards the end of Frederick's reign. New industries were freed from guild restrictions and protected by a system of duties. During the Seven Years' War, Frederick managed to overcome financial difficulties not only with the help of subsidies from Britain, but also thanks to an increase in indirect taxation, which affected mainly the middle class in the cities. After the war, he quickly restored the economy and left behind an army twice the size of his father.

Legislative reform.

Frederick's desire to strengthen power in the state underlay the legislative reform carried out by the king at the beginning of his reign. A unified centralized judicial system was created. The state guaranteed civil rights, primarily property rights.

All these reforms were carried out in the spirit of the Enlightenment, but many semi-feudal vestiges remained in the social structure of Prussia, which were closely connected with its military system. Peasants, especially in the east, were still semi-serfs and tied to the land. The sovereign landowner, the junker, whose estate was serviced by the corvee labor of the peasants (corvee labor reached 5-6 days a week) was the sovereign owner. The king could not curtail the privileges of the junkers, who supplied the state with officers and senior civil servants. However, in order to improve the recruitment system, he opposed the demolition of peasant households, carried out by the junkers in order to increase their arable land and reduce the number of recruits and tax revenues.

Successes of Frederick's reign.

The Seven Years' War, in which the personal qualities of Frederick and the power of the Prussian state were tested, was the result of the capture of Silesia, which at the beginning of his reign belonged to Austria. When it became clear to the king that Prussia could be attacked by coalition troops of a number of European powers (Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, Saxony, etc.), he was again the first to strike in August 1756. However, Frederick owed the saving outcome of the further struggle not so much to his courage and resourcefulness, but to a great deal of luck: the death of the Russian Empress Elizabeth led to a radical change in the political course of Russia. Prussia did not gain much from the war, but the struggle of the king against the superior forces of the coalition made a strong impression on Europe. The status of Prussia as a great power was strengthened, which it was recognized by the Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763).

Having entered into an alliance with Russia in 1764, he participated with her and Austria in the first partition of Poland (1772) and acquired West Prussia. After the death of the childless elector of Bavaria, Maximilian III Joseph (1777), he managed to prevent the annexation by Austria of a large part of Bavaria. At the end of his life, Frederick, playing on the feeling of fear of Austria in the small states of Germany, created the Union of Princes directed against her (1785).

Last years.

Frederick's personal habits and convictions, as well as the nature of his reign, changed little even in advanced years. He lived in Potsdam near Berlin, in the beautiful Sanssouci Palace, built just after his first war, where he was surrounded by books, paintings and works of art. The king spared no expense in building imposing public buildings like the Berlin Opera, built by the architect Georg Knobelsdorff in 1743, but he did not change his skepticism about German literature. Frederick the Great died in Potsdam on August 17, 1786.

Friedrich was born in Berlin into the royal family of the Hohenzoller dynasty. His father Friedrich Wilhelm I did not approve of his son's hobbies for philosophy and art and enrolled him in his Life Guards, wanting to make him primarily a military man in purely Prussian traditions. At the age of twenty, the heir tried to escape to France with his fellow officer, but they were captured. Friedrich was punished by his father with all severity: he had to be present at the execution of his comrade, after which he was escorted to prison under escort. The conclusion, of course, was not long.

After 18 months of arrest, Friedrich decided to submit to his harsh father and his fate.

In 1732, the heir to the Prussian throne received the Ruppinsky infantry regiment under his command.

In 1740, three days after his father's death, Frederick was proclaimed King of Prussia. Together with the throne, he inherited an exemplarily organized small army - only 80 thousand people.

Frederick II immediately began to carry out major state reforms. He abolished censorship and introduced freedom of the press. The kingdom banned torture of civilian prisoners. But the main ones were not civil transformations, but military ones.

In the army, Frederick sought to establish his absolute one-man command. After the celebrations of his accession to the throne, he told the generals: "In my kingdom, the only source of power is myself."

The new Prussian monarch, with traditional German punctuality, introduced genuine law abidance in the kingdom.

Under Frederick the Great, Prussia, the largest among the German states, embarked on the path of militarization.

Best of the day

With the accession to the Prussian throne of Frederick II, the situation in Europe became tense. The reason for this was the aggressive aspirations of the young king.

As a talented commander, Frederick II first made himself known during the first (1740-1742) and second (1744-1745) Silesian wars, which became part of the pan-European struggle for the Austrian inheritance.

The Seven Years' War began on August 17 with a Prussian attack on neighboring Saxony. The 95,000th royal army surrounded the 18,000th Saxon army, and on October 4 it capitulated.

King Frederick showed himself in the Seven Years' War not only as a good tactician, but also as a strategist. The victories came one after anotherHowever, the situation in the Seven Years' War changed dramatically with the entry of the Russian Empire into it.

Appearing in the theater of operations, the Russian army immediately demonstrated its superiority over the Prussians. First, Russia captured East Prussia. However, the Austrian allies sought to use the Russian army primarily to protect their own borders.

Soon, all the previously won brilliant victories of Frederick II were nullified by the Russian army.

Only a change in the political situation in the Russian capital of St. Petersburg saved Prussia from complete defeat. On December 25, 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. The admirer of Frederick II, Peter III, who reigned on the Russian throne, immediately withdrew Russia from the Seven Years' War, returned to Prussia all the territories occupied by the Russian army and concluded an alliance treaty with Berlin. Sweden followed Russia out of the war.

Frederick the Great was a major military leader of his time. He expounded his military-theoretical views in a number of works. The basis of his strategy was maneuvering in the theater of operations in order to deprive the enemy of his supply bases, a surprise attack on the enemy at the very beginning of the war.

In tactics, Frederick II used the so-called oblique attack, which helped him win over the Austrians, Saxons and French, but not over the Russians. He assigned a decisive role to rifle salvo fire from infantry. The heavy Prussian cuirassier cavalry was used massively in the main direction.

Frederick the Great was not only an outstanding statesman, but also a bright, multi-talented personality. He was a polyglot. In addition to his native German language, the king spoke French, English, Spanish, Portuguese and Italian. I read in Latin, Greek and ancient Greek, Hebrew. In addition to state and military activities, the king was engaged in literature a lot: he wrote poetry, philosophical, political and historical works. They were published more than once. In the Berlin edition of 1846-57. (in 30 volumes) the first seven volumes include historical works, two - philosophical, six - poetry, twelve - correspondence, the last three - military content. In addition, the king had a musical talent: he played the flute excellently and composed music (about 100 sonatas and 4 symphonies, the flute concertos composed by Frederick are still included in the repertoire of German chamber music ensembles along with works by other composers of the 18th century).

Childhood and youth

Friedrich was born in Berlin in 1712 and received the name Karl-Friedrich at baptism. His father is King Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia from the Hohenzollern dynasty, his mother is Sophia Dorothea of ​​Hanover, daughter of King George I of England. Frederick was the third and eldest (his two older brothers died in infancy) child in this large royal family, where 14 children. Although his father was not a hunter of foreigners, he entrusted the crown prince to his old French Bonnet. In 1716 he took as his teacher the young officer Dugant de Jandin, whose father, one of the many Huguenots who settled in Brandenburg, was the secretary of the great elector. Under the influence of French educators, Friedrich developed a love for French literature and everything French from childhood. At the same time, two Prussian officers were assigned to the young Frederick as uncles, who were supposed to give the crown prince a military education. To these teachers and educators the king gave the instruction: “The prince should be inspired to be a good Christian. He must be a good and sensible master, and abhor all licentiousness, extravagance, and gambling; moreover, he should be told that he will be nothing more than a contemptible person if he fails to develop a brave soldier out of himself. In accordance with this instruction, Friedrich's daily routine was built. “In the morning prayer, then marching and book teaching; on Sunday, the crown prince, at the head of his platoon, marched to the church.
However, the upbringing of the prince was not so monotonous. King Friedrich Wilhelm I loved music, preferring Handel. The cathedral organist was appointed by him to teach Friedrich the basic rules of organ playing and music theory.

Over time, the opposite began to be revealed between the aspirations, tastes and mood of the young Friedrich and everything that especially characterized his father. Frederick William I was thrifty, and the crown prince showed a penchant for luxury. The king loved soldiery - his heir found the military rude. The king considered himself, first of all, a good Christian - his son was interested in all sciences, but did not study the Law of God well. Even then, the father began to doubt that his son would follow in his footsteps. “I would like to know,” he said one day, pointing to the boy, “what is going on in this head. I know he doesn't think like me; there are scoundrels who inspire him with feelings that are not the same as mine, and teach him to scold everything. Then he turned to his son with advice not to think about trifles, but "keep only the real." In 1727, the academic years of the crown prince ended, but he continued to be kept under the strictest supervision, and the young man had to hide even more with his aspirations.
Conflict with father
In 1728 the Prussian king and his son made a trip to Dresden. The court of August II, one of the most brilliant in Europe, did not make any impression on Friedrich-Wilhelm, but the 16-year-old Frederick, who was honored like a real prince, was subdued by the luxury of court holidays. Here he had his first passion - Countess Anna Orzelskaya, the natural daughter of Augustus II. After that, Berlin, where only parades and parades served as entertainment, seemed boring to Friedrich. He wanted to transfer at least a part of the Dresden carefree life to the northern capital. In 1730, together with Lieutenant Hans-Hermann von Katte, a charming and frivolous playboy, Frederick conceived an escape to England, to the Hanoverian relatives of his mother. But the escape undertaken by the young people during their journey with the king through the Rhineland possessions was unsuccessful. Friedrich was detained and transported to the Kustrinsky fortress, where he was charged with treason, as he was about to flee to England, hostile to Prussia.

The king referred the case of the desertion of his son to the military court. Together with the crown prince, he was put on trial and Katta. Although the king showed anger and was even going to insist on the highest measure in relation to the heir, Frederick was hardly in danger of losing his life. But for Katte, the circumstances were deplorable, he was executed. Friedrich was sentenced to life imprisonment. He was later released from prison, but had to live in the Küstrin fortress. As a petty official of the local domain chamber, he was obliged to work on an equal basis with other employees, and in his free time from compulsory classes, to study old cases stored in the archive, or to talk with elders about the structure of the state, about administration, finance, court, but " not about political affairs.
Friedrich's stay in Kustrin was a practical school for him, in which he got acquainted with the system of the Prussian military and economic management. Already here, the future hero of the two wars for the possession of Silesia learned from his conversations with the Küstrin officials about Prussian trade, how important the Silesian province of the Austrian Habsburg monarchy was for her. As the crown prince became better acquainted with the economic administration and military power of Prussia, he was more and more imbued with respect for both his father and the Prussian system. Friedrich wrote letters to his father from Kustrin, in which he sent economic reports on his trips and asked to be allowed to become a soldier again. The king did not believe his sincerity for a long time, but in the end he was convinced that his heir would be a good master.
The imprisonment and exile lasted more than two years, after which Friedrich was finally forgiven. It seemed to the king that the moment had come to think about the marriage of the heir. The Austrian party proposed Princess Elisabeth-Christina of Braunschweig-Bevern, niece of the Austrian Empress, as a bride, and on June 12, 1733, the marriage took place. This marriage turned out to be childless and unhappy for both spouses, who had very little affection for each other and until the end of their lives remained barely familiar people. After the wedding, Frederick received from his father a regiment and the estate of Reinsberg near the Mecklenburg border, where he could already dispose of his time at his own discretion.

During these years, Frederick began a regular correspondence with Voltaire, who was 18 years older than the crown prince. This famous writer and theoretician of the French Revolution willingly participated in correspondence with the heir to the Prussian throne, although he did not forget to mention in his memoirs that Frederick began it out of nothing to do, and he supported it only out of respect for the title of his correspondent. In 1750, already being king, Frederick invited Voltaire to his residence in Potsdam. However, the personal relationship between the king and the philosopher was not distinguished by evenness. The king hoped to acquire in the person of Voltaire a mentor and older friend, the same was limited only to the correction of royal manuscripts. With his ironic remarks about the friends of the king and his poems, Voltaire made enemies for himself, and in 1753 he had to hastily leave Prussia.
During the two years spent under arrest, Friedrich parted with his youthful fantasies. The upbringing of Friedrich Wilhelm, against whom the prince so violently rebelled, nevertheless had a latent and strong influence on him. The king must be a soldier and a good master, that's what Friedrich learned from his father's instructions. He decided that if he became the king of his state, then he would be one of the best kings in history. And he succeeded!

Frederick's success was predetermined by his writing of the political treatise Antimachiavelli, or the Trial of the Prince (1739). The treatise contains a refutation of the postulates put forward in the work of Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) "The Sovereign". Practical Machiavellianism is based on the belief that kings have only rights and no duties. Frederick argues that the ruler is primarily obliged to maintain the welfare and prosperity of his subjects. According to Friedrich, Machiavelli attaches too much importance to intrigue, forgetting about the harm they bring to the state, and extols the great villains, while silent about the negative aspects of their rule. Even the people of the enlightened eighteenth century were struck by Antimachiavelli's humanism and nobility of ideas. The book went through three reprints and was distributed almost throughout Europe: in England, France, and Spain. Even more popular was the fact that in 1740 its author became king.
Territorial acquisitions

After the death of the king-father (May 31, 1740), the 28-year-old Friedrich receives not just the crown of Prussia, but a strong army and a treasury not spent on empty court entertainment. Friends of the Crown Prince, who had hoped for the generosity of Frederick, whom they knew in the Rheinsberg years, were deceived in their hopes. The king disposes of money extremely sparingly. He planned to use these funds to expand the boundaries of his state so that it could become on a par with the paramount European powers. Prussia, weak and striped, placed among strong monarchies, in an age when all sorts of partitions were being planned, needed mainly an army and money. Frederick immediately increased the army by 16 infantry battalions, 5 squadrons of hussars and a guard squadron.

He made his first and most important acquisition already in the first year of his reign, starting the Silesian War. After the death of the Austrian emperor Charles VI, who left no male descendants, Frederick refused to recognize the Pragmatic Sanction issued by Charles VI himself, which allowed the transfer of the imperial throne through the female line. Under the pretext of the old rights of the Hohenzollerns to several Silesian counties, Frederick invaded Silesia in December 1740 and occupied it. In 1745, Frederick had to defend Silesia again and even Berlin (to which the Austro-Saxon troops were moving), which he performed brilliantly. After this war, Prussia gained a lot in terms of territory and international prestige. The acquisition of the densely populated and industrialized Silesia sharply strengthened Prussia, giving it the status of a great European power and a dangerous rival to the Habsburg monarchy. Then Frederick began to be called "Frederick the Great." The second acquisition of Frederick II was West Prussia - the territory of Poland, dividing Brandenburg with East Prussia. It was obtained peacefully in 1772, taking advantage of a diplomatic alliance with Russia. Three powers participated in the division of Poland: Russia, Prussia and Austria. At the same time, the undoubted benefit of Prussia was that the Polish lands attached to it destroyed the patchwork of its possessions. The possession of the mouth of the Vistula made Frederick the master of Polish trade.
The struggle of Frederick II with a powerful European coalition during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763) especially elevated the importance of Prussia and its monarch. Empress Maria Theresa of Austria decided to return Silesia and prevent further intrigues of Prussia by depriving Frederick of his kingship and part of the lands. Russia, Saxony and France joined Austria, and then Sweden. In 1755, a secret treaty was concluded in Vienna, according to which the participating countries pledged to attack Frederick if he opened hostilities against any of them. The agreement also included a clause on the subsequent division of the Prussian lands. Through his spies, Frederick knew about the preparations for war and hastened to forestall the first strike.

By the beginning of the winter of 1756-1757, the Prussian army numbered 200 thousand people, the armies of the allies - 500 thousand. The only hope for success in this case was to quickly attack the opponents and prevent them from uniting, to defeat them one by one. His forces weakened with each campaign, but his opponents also suffered losses and were almost ruined by the war. Hostilities continued until 1762; their end was brought closer by the death of the Russian Empress Elizabeth, who was succeeded by Peter III. He bowed before Frederick and immediately made peace with Prussia. The provinces and cities were returned to Frederick. He had one strong opponent left - Austria. But the further war seemed to Maria Theresa too expensive pleasure in the deplorable state in which the country's economy was. On February 16, 1762, peace was signed between Austria, Prussia and Saxony, according to which all powers remained within the borders until the Seven Years' War. Silesia was again recognized as the property of Frederick.
The Seven Years' War is over. She made Friedrich a hero, turned him into a living legend, but also prematurely aged. He was only 50 years old when he wrote to his friend, the writer D "Argens:" As an old man, who every day takes away a year of his life, an invalid, wounded by gout, I return to a city in which only one wall is familiar to me. There is no more close to my heart. Not old friends will meet me at the doorstep, but new wounds of my people and countless concerns about their healing. "The next day, after the king's arrival in Berlin, a prayer service and memorial service took place in the Charlottenburg court church. At the end of the service, they began to look for the king and found him kneeling in the corner of the church, his head in his hands, weeping.
Frederick II was the real hero of these wars both militarily and politically. He personally took part in all military campaigns. The most brilliant victories in these wars were won by the Prussian king, who also suffered many terrible defeats in the fight against the coalition. In all his wars, Frederick, in full accordance with his basic principle, always knew how to keep all his military preparations in the deepest secret and took his enemies by surprise. In general, in the sense of military tricks, Frederick II is most often compared with Hannibal: his resourcefulness in the most hopeless cases was amazing.
Although these wars were of a pan-European character, since all the main states of Europe took part in them, in various combinations, nevertheless they were of the greatest importance for Prussia. Along with Russia, Austria, France and England, Prussia finally established itself as the fifth European great power. The British statesman Robert Walpole had to admit that the balance of Europe was in the hands of the Prussian king and that this could not be changed, however unpleasant it might be for England.

Domestic reforms

Having come to power, Frederick first of all began to reorganize Prussia on the basis of the Enlightenment, inviting the German scientist-encyclopedist, philosopher and lawyer Christian von Wolf to the court. Friedrich outlined the program of transformations in his “Political Testament” as follows: “A well-functioning government should represent a system as firmly connected as the system of concepts in philosophy. All his decisions should be well justified; economic, foreign and military policy should contribute to a single goal - to consolidate the power of the state and increase its power. For such a rational approach, Frederick received the nickname of the king-philosopher.
Less than a month had passed since the accession of Frederick II to the throne, as torture disappeared from the Prussian criminal procedure, the death penalty was limited and justice was improved. Then, some restrictions on marriage were abolished, the property rights of citizens were guaranteed, and religious tolerance was introduced. Under him, for the first time, it became possible to legally justify the freedom of the press on German soil. Censorship was limited to three articles: it was forbidden to write against God, against the sacraments of the Christian Church and against the honor of the people.

In 1749, a new set of laws "Corpus juris Fridericianum" came into force. This normative legal act collected all the existing laws of Prussia, supplemented by new, up-to-date norms. In 1781, Friedrich, together with the leading lawyers of Prussia, develops new laws: “Universal Civil Law” and “General Procedure for Judicial Procedure”. estates. "One law for all" - this is the principle that guided Frederick. The king stood for the complete independence of the court from the administration and found that judges "should not pay attention to rescripts, even if they came out of the royal office." The reformed courts were imbued with this idea, and Prussian justice rightly began to be considered exemplary in terms of the independence and integrity of judges.
Frederick especially developed his government activities in the field of state and national economy. He had his own economic theory. It boiled down to keeping gold and silver in the country, patronizing the development of industry in Prussia itself, but at the same time protecting and improving agriculture. The drainage of the Oder marshes was carried out and dams were built in the coastal flooded lands of East Frisia. This increased the area of ​​arable land, and 300 thousand colonists found a new home here. In agriculture, he introduced new crops, such as potatoes. Later, potatoes from Germany were brought to Russia. Many navigable rivers were connected by canals, which facilitated the transportation of Prussian goods, and they became much cheaper. Two trading companies were founded - Asiatic and Bengal.

Serious measures were also taken to spread education. In 1763, a decree was issued on rural schools (General-Land-Schul-Reglement), the introduction to which speaks of the ignorance of the villagers as a great evil, and the need to educate the masses. Some passages in the writings of Frederick himself could serve as a commentary on this regulation, testifying to how correctly he judged the significance of the "education of youth" from the point of view of the common good. The regulation of 1763 made it compulsory for the children of the villagers to attend elementary school. Parents, guardians and landowners were to be held accountable for non-compliance with this rule.

Frederick the Great contributed to the development of science, art and culture. One of the first state decrees after his ascension to the throne was the decree on the establishment of the Royal Opera in Berlin. The king united at his court the best musicians and conductors of Prussia. One of his court musicians was Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach, the second son of Johann Sebastian Bach. In 1747 he invited Johann Sebastian Bach to Potsdam. In 1744, on the basis of the Berlin Scientific Society, Friedrich created the Berlin Academy of Sciences, where he invited the best scientists from all over Europe, and a year later he opened the first public library in Berlin. Berlin became the center of the Enlightenment. Frederick the Great continued the architectural modernization of the city begun by his father under the guidance of the architect Knobelsdorff.

But Frederick II did not choose Berlin as his permanent residence, but Potsdam. Here, in 1747, he laid the foundation for the Sanssouci palace and park complex, which gained worldwide fame. According to his sketches, the architect Georg Wenceslaus von Knobelsdorf created a project for the future park with its famous palaces and buildings. The one-story Sanssouci Palace served as a place where Friedrich, enjoying the beautiful views from the windows of the palace, was engaged in state affairs, wrote books or played music. “When I am there, I will live without worries,” he once said to his friend, moving into a summer residence. So he called his favorite palace: "sans souci" - "without worries." In Sanssouci, Friedrich created an intellectual center, inviting the intellectual elite of the state there: scientists, writers, philosophers, with whom he liked to talk. In the period from 1755 to 1764, according to the project of Johann Gottfried Bühring, an art gallery was built - the first building in the history of museums intended only for storing paintings. Friedrich personally replenished her collections.

During the reign of Frederick II and after him, under Frederick William IV, outstanding masters were involved to work in Sanssouci: the architects Knobelsdorff, Schinkel and Persius, the sculptors Glume, Ebenhech, Benkert and Heimüller, the Hoppenhaupt brothers, the creator of Lenne parks and many others. They created here a single work of art, which, with its artistic perfection, is an example of high German culture. In 1990, Sanssouci with its palaces and large park was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
last years of life
The last important act of the Prussian king was the creation in 1785 of a defensive alliance of German princes (Fürstenbund) in response to a new attempt by Joseph II to annex Bavaria. It was a major diplomatic victory not only over Austria, which was opposed by the Prussian union (a union of states in which two different states have a common monarch), but also over the distrust of the imperial princes. Although for that time the union did not matter, nevertheless, the first experience of the unification of Germany under Prussian hegemony was made, which laid the foundation for a completely new system in the empire. Germany was finally freed from serving the Habsburg interests, and the Hohenzollerns, on the contrary, became representatives of the national aspirations of the German people. The whole subsequent policy of Frederick II supported the idea that Prussia was the main spokesman and defender of German national interests. It is not for nothing that Mirabeau, in his essay “On the Prussian Monarchy,” advises the Germans to stick to this state.

At the same time, Frederick continued to actively manage Prussia. Here his autocratic character was put to perfect use. The king rarely listened to anyone's advice, but there was no sovereign who knew his subjects better than he did. He ruled his country like a big estate. He received daily reports on the number of births and deaths, crops and buildings. He knew how much cloth and linen were sold abroad, what was produced in this or that province, and how much income each factory or manufactory brings.

The routine of his day, which has not changed throughout his life, surprises with the effort that is required in order to lead him. The king got up at five o'clock in summer and at six in winter and immediately set to work, having time to read the correspondence and sketch out draft answers. "About eleven o'clock the king reviewed his regiment of guards in the garden, and at the same hour in all the provinces the commanders of the regiments reviewed their regiments." Before dinner, Friedrich had time to listen to the reports of the ministers and discuss military affairs with the generals. After dinner, audiences are given. The king then spends several hours in literary pursuits. There was a small concert before dinner. The king himself played in the orchestra the music of his own composition or the work of Quantz, the director of his court chapel.
Having buried all his friends and military generals, he became withdrawn and sad. For the most part, the king lived alone, surrounded by dogs, horses, and soldiers in the empty Sanssouci Palace. He is credited with the following phrase: "I have long since become the history of myself." During the 46 years of his reign, Frederick was constantly worried about the topic of death. In addition to his "Political Testament" of 1752, he wrote detailed wills before almost every battle, before every war. Just as often he repeated his instructions for burial: “I have lived like a philosopher and want to be buried like a philosopher, without pomp, without solemn pomp, without luxury. I don't want to be autopsied and embalmed. May I be buried at Sanssouci on a terraced hill in a tomb that I ordered to be built for myself. If I die in the war or on the way, then let me be buried in the nearest suitable place, and in the winter they will be transferred to Sanssouci. At the time of his death, the clock in the bedroom stopped. Subsequently, this watch was with Napoleon Bonaparte. It was them that he took with him to the island of St. Helena.

The king left his nephew, the heir to the Prussian crown Frederick William II, a rich treasury for that time (70 million thalers) and an army of 200 thousand people, which was considered exemplary. In the reign of Frederick the Great, Prussia expanded territorially. Upon accession to the throne, he had 2,240,000 subjects, in the year of his death - more than 6 million. He fully deserves to be called the Great for his reason as a statesman and strong character, for his self-control during military operations, for comprehending his royal life task and, finally, for unshakable steadfastness under heavy blows of fate.

Svetlana Pankratz

Frederick 2, (Frederick the Great), he is also known by the nickname "Old Fritz" (born January 24, 1712 - death August 17, 1786) - King of Prussia since 1740. Father - King of Prussia Friedrich Wilhelm 1 (Hohenzollern dynasty), mother - Sophia Dorothea of ​​Hanover, daughter of the English King George 1.

Childhood

Friedrich was born in January 1712, at baptism he received the name Karl-Friedrich. His first teacher, a French emigrant, Mademoiselle de Rocul, engendered in him a love for French literature. Friedrich retained this passion until the end of his days, despite the obvious disapproval of his father Friedrich Wilhelm, who wanted to make an exemplary soldier out of his son. Alas, the character of Friedrich did not develop at all in the direction that his father had dreamed of. In many important and petty circumstances, a complete difference between them was soon revealed.

Youth. Disagreements with father

Constant military exercises bored the prince. The rude game of hunting was disgusting to him. From an early age, Friedrich felt a penchant for the sciences and art. In his spare time he read French books and played the flute. The monarch did not like this: he made frequent and severe reprimands to his son, not analyzing either the place or the time. "Not! he said. - Fritz is a rake and a poet: he will not be of any use! He does not like the life of a soldier, he will ruin the whole thing, over which I have been breastfeeding for so long!

Unfortunately, the father took very strict measures in an attempt to correct his son's shortcomings, which resulted in many quarrels between them. 1730 - Frederick decided to escape to England. The horse and money were already prepared, but at the last minute everything was opened. The prince was arrested and imprisoned in Kistrin Castle, where he spent several months without furniture, without books and candles. For entertainment, he was given one Bible.

Family life. Ascension to the throne

Having cooled down somewhat, the king released his son from captivity, but the final reconciliation was only after he agreed to the marriage arranged by his father with Elizabeth Christina of Brunswick. Although, Friedrich's family life clearly did not work out. They say that the prince's first love experiences were very unsuccessful and left an indelible mark on his character. In extreme cases, throughout his life he could not stand women, treated them very harshly and wished that those close to him were not married.

With his wife Elizabeth, he never had marital communication. On their wedding night, he persuaded his friends to raise the alarm and shout with all their might: “Fire!” When the commotion arose, Friedrich ran away from the newlywed and from that time never slept with her again. In May 1740, the old king died, and the throne passed to Frederick.

Having received from his father a flourishing power and a full treasury, the young king changed almost nothing in court order: he retained the same simplicity and moderation that had been established under Friedrich Wilhelm. Like his father, he loved order and work, was thrifty to the point of stinginess, autocratic and irritable.

Friedrich 2 after the coronation

War of the Austrian Succession

However, unlike him, Frederick was not going to limit his activities only to domestic affairs. Prussia, which under Friedrich Wilhelm had turned into a strong military state, was supposed, as he believed, to oust the old European powers, and primarily Austria, in order to take its rightful place among them. Circumstances favored Frederick's plans for conquest.

1740, October - Emperor Charles VI died without male offspring. He was succeeded by his daughter Maria Theresa. In December, Frederick announced to the Austrian envoy that Austria was illegally holding Silesia, although this province rightfully belonged to Prussia. Without waiting for an answer from Vienna, the monarch moved his army into Silesia. The blow was struck so unexpectedly that almost the entire area surrendered to the Prussians without resistance. The stubborn war (it went down in history as the War of the Austrian Succession) continued until 1748. Despite all efforts, the Austrians could not recapture Silesia. According to the Peace of Aachen in 1748, this rich province remained with Prussia.

Friedrich II and Voltaire

After the successful end of the war, Frederick returned to state affairs and his favorite literary pursuits. Military affairs could not destroy his love for art and philosophy. 1750 - the king persuaded the idol of his youth, Voltaire, to settle in Potsdam, granting him a chamberlain's key and 5,000 thalers a year. The whole position of the discharged celebrity was to correct the royal verses.

At first, Voltaire liked this life very much, but then he began to be weary of it, and the further, the more. By nature, Friedrich had a caustic disposition. Even the closest of friends were forced to endure caustic ridicule from him. With such a character, he, of course, could not attract sincere love to himself. Voltaire, who was also an evil mocker, was not accustomed to being indebted. The jokes exchanged between the monarch and his guest grew angrier. In the end, Voltaire left Potsdam with such haste that his departure was very much like a flight.

Friedrich 2 plays the flute

Character. Habits. Personal life

Like all great people, Friedrich had his oddities. In food, he was intemperate: he ate a lot and greedily, did not use forks and took food with his hands, from which the sauce flowed down his uniform. He put the meat for his beloved dog in order to cool it right on the tablecloth. Often he spilled wine, poured tobacco, so that the place on which the monarch sat was always easy to distinguish from others. He wore his clothes to the point of obscenity. His pants were with holes, his shirt was torn. When he died, they could not find a single decent shirt in his wardrobe to decently put him in a coffin. The sovereign had neither a nightcap, nor shoes, nor a dressing gown. Instead of a cap, he used a pillow, tying it with a scarf around his head. He did not take off his uniform and boots even at home. The robe was replaced by a semi-caftan. Friedrich usually slept on a very thin short bed with a thin mattress and got up at 5 or 6 in the morning.

Immediately after breakfast, the minister came to him with large bundles of papers. Looking through them, the sovereign made notes in two or three words. According to these notes, the secretaries then compiled full answers and resolutions. At 11 o'clock the king went to the parade ground and inspected his regiment. At this time, all over Prussia, the colonels were reviewing their regiments. Then Friedrich 2 went to dinner with his brothers, two generals and chamberlains, and again went to his office. Until five or six hours he worked on his literary compositions.

If the emperor got tired, he called the reader, who until seven read a book. The day usually ended with a small concert, while Friedrich 2 personally played the flute and often gizmos of his own composition. He was a big fan of music. The evening table was served in a small hall, decorated with a painting of Peon, painted according to the drawing of the monarch. It had such a frivolous content that it seemed almost obscene. At this hour, the sovereign from time to time began a philosophical conversation with the guests, and, according to the malicious-speaking Voltaire, an outside observer might think that he hears the conversation of the seven Greek sages sitting in a brothel. Neither women nor priests were ever admitted to the court. The monarch lived without courtiers, without advice and without worship. Holidays were held only a few times a year.

Seven Years' War

The measured course of life in 1756 was interrupted by the fierce Seven Years' War. Prussia bore the brunt of it, which happened to fight against France, Austria, Saxony, Poland, Sweden and Russia at the same time. Connecting all together, they could put up about 500 thousand soldiers against Frederick. But the allies acted inconsistently, apart from each other on a broad front. Quickly transferring troops from one place to another and inflicting swift blows, Frederick not only repelled all their attacks at first, but also won a number of brilliant victories that plunged the whole of Europe into amazement.

1757 - the monarch, at the head of an army of 56,000, entered Saxony and easily occupied Leipzig. The Saxon army of August III was surrounded by the Prussians in its camp. After making several unsuccessful attempts to break through, the Saxons surrendered to the mercy of the winner. Then the king moved against Austria, in May he approached Prague and, in a stubborn battle near its walls, inflicted a complete defeat on the Austrians. But a new battle in June at Kolin ended in failure for the Prussians. Frederick 2 lost up to 14 thousand of his best soldiers and was forced to stop the siege of Prague.

The defeat was partly offset by a brilliant victory over the French army, which the monarch won in November at Rosbach, and an equally remarkable success in battle with the Austrians near the village of Leuthen in December of the same year. The French lost 17 thousand killed, the Austrians - 6 thousand killed, as well as 21 thousand prisoners and all artillery. Breslavl was soon captured, where another 18,000 Austrians surrendered.

Prussian infantry of Frederick II

Leaving the Austrian front, the king hurried to East Prussia, where the Russian army was deployed. 1758, August - there was a bloody battle at Zorndorf. The Russians were defeated in many places, but stubbornly did not want to retreat. Only darkness put an end to the battle. The Prussians lost up to 13 thousand people, the Russians - about 19 thousand. A year later, in August 1759, a new battle took place near the village of Kunersdorf, which ended this time with the complete defeat of Frederick. 20 thousand of his soldiers remained on the battlefield. In October 1760, the Russians captured Berlin with an unexpected blow. However, they did not even think to keep this city for themselves. A few days later, having taken 2 million thalers of indemnity, the Russians retreated. Frederick the Great, meanwhile, waged a difficult war in Saxony against the Austrians and won a very difficult victory over them on the banks of the Elbe.

1761 - the king retreated to the fortified camp near Bunzelwitz with the 50,000th corps. The 135,000-strong Russian-Austrian army surrounded the Prussian camp from all sides, trying to stop the supply of food. The position of the Prussians was very difficult, but Frederick defended himself stubbornly. To raise the spirit of the troops, he was with his soldiers day and night, ate the same food with them and often slept by the bivouac fire.

Luckily for him, the allies fought each other all the time and failed to do anything remarkable. Meanwhile, in January 1761, the Russian empress died. He ascended the Russian throne, who never hid his ardent sympathy for Prussia and its monarch. As soon as he took power, he hastened to conclude a truce. In April, the peace itself was signed. Sweden followed suit the following month. Frederick pulled all his forces against the Austrians and drove them out of Silesia.

In autumn, peace was concluded between Great Britain and France. Maria Theresa was unable to continue the war alone and also leaned towards negotiations. February 16, 1763 - The Treaty of Hubertusburg was signed, ending the Seven Years' War. All powers agreed to maintain pre-war frontiers in Europe. Silesia remained with Prussia. Although the war did not bring territorial gains to Frederick the Great, it created for him a resounding fame throughout Europe. Even in France and Austria, he had many enthusiastic supporters who deservedly considered the Prussian king the best commander of his time.

Consequences of the war

Frederick II the Great spent the last quarter of a century of his reign in the world. He had to work hard to establish order and prosperity in the kingdom, upset by the war. During these 7 years, the population decreased by half a million people, many cities and villages lay in ruins. The sovereign actively took up the restoration of the country. The devastated provinces received financial assistance, all the grain from the army stores was distributed to the peasants, and he ordered them to give 35 thousand convoy horses. To strengthen finances, the monarch withdrew from circulation all the damaged coins, which he had to issue during the war years, and ordered them to be re-minted into full-weight thalers.

The population decline was partly replenished by attracting colonists from other lands. In foreign relations, Frederick tried to maintain a friendly alliance with Russia, supported her in the war with Poland, but at the same time did not forget about his own interests. 1772 - he very cleverly raised the question of the partition of Poland, offering to reward himself in this way for the costs of the Turkish war. During the first partition, he himself received West Prussia with the mouth of the Vistula.

death of the king

Gradually, the forces began to leave the king. He suffered from insomnia, hemorrhoids and asthma. The gout had plagued him for a long time. The great king died from 16 to 17 August 1786. When he died, the clock in the bedroom stopped. Later, these watches will be at. It is them that he will take with him to the island of St. Helena.

Frederick 2 bequeathed to bury himself in his beloved Sanssouci. But his nephew and successor Friedrich Wilhelm II did not fulfill the will of the deceased and ordered to be buried in the Potsdam garrison church, next to his father.

Frederick II the Great

Friedrich II (Friedrich) (1712-1786) - Prussian king from 1740, commander. Doubled the territory of Prussia as a result of the Silesian Wars, the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, and the partitions of Poland. One of the brightest representatives of the "politics of enlightened absolutism". Contributed to the marriage of Peter III and Catherine II.

Orlov A.S., Georgiev N.G., Georgiev V.A. Historical dictionary. 2nd ed. M., 2012, p. 541.

Frederick II the Great (1712-1786), Prussian king from 1740, from the Hohenzollern dynasty, a major commander; As a result of his policy of conquest (the Silesian Wars of 1740-42 and 1744-45, participation in the Seven Years' War of 1756-63, in the 1st partition of Poland in 1772), the territory of Prussia almost doubled. One of the main representatives of "enlightened absolutism", the idea of ​​which was inspired by Voltaire. "Philosopher on the throne", a follower of the rationalist philosophy of the XVIII century, he limited his progressive convictions to the realm of abstract ideas, but in practice he followed the old despotic traditions of the Hohenzollerns. He very aptly defines his attitude to philosophy in the following words: I patronize only such free thinkers who have decent manners and reasonable views.".

Historian King

Frederick II the Great (1712-1786) - King of Prussia from the Hohenzollern dynasty, who ruled from 1740-1786. Son Friedrich Wilhelm I and Sophia Dorothea of ​​England.

Wife: from 1733 Elisabeth Christina, daughter of Frederick Albert II, Duke of Brunswick-Bevern (born 1715 + 1797).

Frederick was the third son in the royal family, but his two older brothers died before he was born, so from the very birth he was considered the crown prince. His first tutor was a French emigrant, Mademoiselle de Rocul, who instilled in him a love for French literature. In the seventh year, Frederick was placed under the supervision of the teacher Dugan, who further strengthened his disposition towards everything French. Count Frankenstein, a soldier in the style of his father, was appointed tutor to the prince. Friedrich Wilhelm distributed his son's hours of study by minutes. He wanted to make him completely in his own image: a quick, practical and pious man - and, above all, a soldier. The young prince's curriculum included only calligraphy, arithmetic, economics, history and geography. Literature has been excluded. The queen mother and teacher Dugan tried to fill this gap in secret.

But Friedrich's character developed in a completely different direction than his father had dreamed of. In many important and petty circumstances, a complete difference between them was soon revealed. The prince was bored with incessant military exercises. The rude game of hunting was disgusting to him. Friedrich Wilhelm's famous "tobacco colleges" pissed him off. From an early age, Friedrich felt a penchant for the sciences and art. In his spare time he read French books and played the flute. The king did not like it; he made frequent and severe reprimands to his son, without considering either the place or the time. "Not! he said. - Fritz is a rake and a poet: he will not be of any use! He does not like the life of a soldier, he will ruin the whole thing that I have been working on for so long! Unfortunately, the king took too strict measures, trying to eradicate the shortcomings of his son, and this led to many quarrels between them. Once, in anger, Friedrich Wilhelm burst into the prince's room, broke all his flutes, and threw the books into the oven. “I am brought to the most desperate situation,” Friedrich wrote in one of his letters to his mother, “the king completely forgot that I was his son; he treats me like a man of the lowest rank. When I entered his room today, he rushed at me and beat me with a stick until he was exhausted. A sense of personal dignity does not allow me to endure such treatment any longer; I have been driven to the extreme, and so I resolved to put an end to it one way or another.” Since then, he constantly thought about fleeing to England or France. An opportunity presented itself in the summer of 1730, when Friedrich accompanied his father on a trip to southern Germany. In one of the places he wanted to secretly leave the royal train and flee to Holland, and from there to England. A horse and money were already prepared, But at the last minute everything was opened. Having learned about the plans of his son, the king ordered to seize him and deliver him under guard to Prussia. Here the prince was imprisoned in the castle of Kistrin without furniture, without books and candles. For entertainment, he was given one Bible. The anger of Friedrich Wilhelm was so great that at one time he was going to execute Frederick and gave him a formal trial as a deserter. Emperor Charles VI managed to dissuade the king from this intention. However, under the very windows of the prince's dungeon, his soulmate Katt, who helped in the escape, was executed.

Having cooled down somewhat, Friedrich Wilhelm released his son from captivity. But the final reconciliation did not come soon. The prince was given a separate house in Kistrina, given a small allowance and appointed inspector of specific lands. He made very good use of his service to study the soil, types of farming, livestock breeds and the peasant population. However, his position still remained unenviable: he did not dare to leave the city; reading books, especially French ones, as well as playing music, were strictly forbidden to him. Only in the summer of 1731 did the king relent and give his son more freedom. In February 1732, he called the prince to Berlin, promoted him to colonel and commander of one of the guards regiments. He finally reconciled with Frederick only after he agreed to the marriage arranged by the king with Elisabeth Christina Braunschweigeka.

They say that Friedrich's first love experiences were very unsuccessful and left indelible marks on his character: At least he could not stand women all his life, treated them very harshly and wished that those close to him were not married. With his wife Elizabeth, he never had marital communication. On their wedding night, he persuaded his friends to raise the alarm and shout proudly: “Fire!” When the turmoil began, Friedrich ran away from the newlywed and has never slept with her since. After the wedding, he settled in Rheinsberg and led a life here according to his own taste. The morning was devoted to the sciences, and the evening to entertainment. At the same time, Friedrich began a correspondence with many famous enlighteners, including Voltaire. In May 1740 the old king died and the throne passed to Frederick.

Having received from his father a flourishing state and a full treasury, Frederick changed almost nothing in court order: he retained the same simplicity and moderation that had been established under Friedrich Wilhelm. Like the old king, he loved order and work, was frugal to the point of stinginess, autocratic and irritable. But unlike him, Frederick was not going to limit his activities only to domestic affairs. Prussia, which under Friedrich Wilhelm had turned into a strong military state, had, in his opinion, to oust the old European powers, and above all Austria, in order to take its rightful place among them. “Now the time has come,” the king wrote to Voltaire, “when the old political system must be given a completely new direction; the stone came off. who will roll down on the multicolored image of Nebuchadnezzar and crush him to the ground. Circumstances favored Friedrich's conquest plans. In October 1740, Emperor Charles VI died without male offspring. He was succeeded by his daughter Maria Theresa. In December, Frederick announced to the Austrian envoy that Austria was illegally holding Silesia, although this province rightfully belonged to Prussia. For a long time, the king noted, the just claims of the Electors of Brandenburg were ignored by the emperors, but he did not intend to continue this fruitless dispute further and preferred to resolve it by force of arms. Without waiting for an answer from Vienna, Frederick moved his army into Silesia. (Indeed, the Hohenzollerns had long laid claim to the Silesian provinces of Jägersdorf, Liegnitz, Brig and Wolau, but Prussian rights to them were far from being as undisputed as Frederick wanted to make it out to be; however, he himself knew this very well.) The blow was struck so unexpectedly that almost all of Silesia surrendered to the Prussians without resistance. In 1741, France and Bavaria entered the war against Austria. In March, the Prussians stormed the fortress of GlOgau, and on April 10, a heated battle took place near the village of Molwitz. Its beginning was unsuccessful for Friedrich. The Austrian cavalry overturned the right flank of the Prussian army, commanded by the king himself. Thinking that the battle was lost, Frederick rode with his retinue to Oppeln and found it already occupied by the enemy. Discouraged, he went back and then learned that after his departure, General Schwerin was able to turn the tide near Mollwitz and, after a stubborn five-hour battle, forced the Austrians to retreat. In October, the Prussians occupied the Neuss. All of lower Silesia was now under their control, and in November Frederick took the oath of his new subjects. He liked this rich province very much. He took care of its prosperity with all his might: he forgave the peasants' tax debts, gave them bread for sowing, and promised the Catholics complete inviolability of their rights and possessions. He always strictly monitored the observance of order and did not allow robberies. The inhabitants of Silesia fully appreciated his kindness and in the future were invariably loyal to the Prussian king.

In 1742, Frederick, in alliance with the Saxons, began a war in Moravia and the Czech Republic. On May 17, a battle took place near the town of Shotuzits. At first, the Austrians swiftly attacked the Prussian system and threw it into confusion. To distract the enemy, Friedrich ordered to open his convoy in front of him. When the attackers eagerly rushed to plunder it, the king swiftly attacked the left wing of the Austrians and defeated it. With this deft maneuver, he won the battle. The winners got a lot of prisoners and guns. The new defeat made the Vienna cabinet think about peace. In June, a treaty was signed under which Maria Theresa ceded Silesia and the county of Glatz to Friedrich. But this agreement was not final. In the next two years, the Austrians won several high-profile victories over the Bavarians and the French. Concerned Frederick in 1744 again entered the war and invaded the Czech Republic. At the same time, Louis XV launched an offensive in the Netherlands. In September, the Prussians captured Prague after a brutal bombardment. But that was where their success ended. The Czechs began a stubborn guerrilla war against the enemy. Provisions and fodder were delivered to the Prussian camp with great difficulty. Soon the army of Frederick began to experience severe hardships, he decided to leave Prague and retreat to Silesia. Enemies pursued him and laid siege to many fortresses.

In 1745, the second Silesian war broke out, the outcome of which was clear for a long time. Finally, on July 4, Frederick defeated the Prince of Lorraine at Hohenfriedberg. Having lost more than ten thousand people killed and captured, the Austrians retreated. The king pursued the enemy in the Czech Republic and on September 30 gave him a battle near the village of Sor. The victory remained with the Prussians. But the lack of food again forced them to retreat to Silesia. In autumn, Charles of Lorraine tried to penetrate Brandenburg through Saxony. The Prussian army secretly moved towards him, suddenly attacked the Austrians in the village of Gennersdorf and inflicted a severe defeat on them. The prince retreated to Bohemia, while Frederick invaded Saxony. At the end of November, he captured Leipzig, and on December 15 he fought the Saxon army at Kesselsdorf. The position of the enemy was excellent - most of the army stood on a steep slope, the slopes and cliffs of which were covered with ice and snow. The Prussians could approach the enemy only from the left flank, but here a Saxon battery was placed on a hill, causing terrible damage with its fire. Two fierce attacks by the Prussians were repulsed, but after the third attack the battery was taken. At the same time, the Prussian cavalry outflanked the Saxon positions and attacked them from the rear. This double success decided the outcome of the battle. The Saxons retreated in disarray, and the next day Frederick approached Dresden. The capital could not defend itself, because Elector Augustus, expanding his gardens, ordered the destruction of many fortifications. On December 18, the Prussian king solemnly entered Dresden. The Kesselsdorf victory decided the outcome of the war, and peace was signed at the end of December: Maria Theresa ceded Friedrich Silesia for the second time, and he recognized her husband Franz 1 as emperor of the "Holy Roman Empire" for this.

After the successful end of the war, Friedrich returned to state concerns and his favorite literary pursuits. Military deeds did not destroy his love for art and philosophy. It was during these years that the magnificent building of the Opera House was rebuilt in Berlin. Singers and singers were discharged from Italy, and they were entitled to more salaries than ministers. Only 60 thousand thalers were spent on the dress of the dancers. This despite the fact that Friedrich put only 12 thousand a year to buy provisions for the entire court. In 1750, he persuaded the idol of his youth, Voltaire, to settle in Potsdam, granting him a chamberlain's key and 5,000 thalers a year. The whole position of the discharged celebrity was to correct the royal verses. At first, Voltaire really liked this life, but then he began to be weary of it, and the further, the more. By nature, Friedrich had a caustic disposition. Even the closest friends had to endure caustic ridicule from him. With such a character, he, of course, could not attract sincere love to himself. Voltaire, who was also an evil mocker, was not accustomed to being indebted. The jokes exchanged between the king and his guest grew angrier. So, Voltaire, once again receiving royal verses for editing, said that he had to wash dirty royal linen. And the king likened his poet to an orange that is thrown after all the juice is squeezed out of it. After several disagreements, Voltaire asked Frederick to go to the Plombier waters to improve his health. The king figured out that the philosopher wanted to get away from him, sent a platoon of soldiers in pursuit of him and ordered Voltaire to be detained in Frankfurt, in one of the taverns. Voltaire had to return the chamberlain's key and the Order of Merit granted to him by the king, and pay almost 6,000 livres for all the expenses used on him (the king had previously sent this amount to him for travel expenses in order to lure him to him). However, even after that, the king continued to write long letters to Voltaire and corresponded with him until his death,

Like all great people, Friedrich had his oddities. He was a great hunter of dogs, and there were always between 50 and 80 greyhounds at the royal stud. They write that Friedrich did not love anyone in his life as passionately as his bitch Alklina, with whom he slept at night in the same bed. When she died, he ordered to bury her in the tomb, which he had previously appointed for himself. In food, he was intemperate: he ate a lot and greedily, did not use forks and took food with his hands, from which the sauce flowed down his uniform. He put meat for his beloved dog to cool directly on the tablecloth. He often spilled wine, poured tobacco, so that the place on which the king sat was always easy to distinguish from others. He wore his clothes to the point of obscenity. His pants were with holes, his shirt was torn. When he died, they could not find a single decent shirt in his wardrobe to decently put him in a coffin. The king had no nightcap, no shoes, no dressing gown. Instead of a cap, he used a pillow, tying it with a scarf around his head. He did not take off his uniform and boots even at home. The robe replaced the semi-caftan. Friedrich usually slept on a very thin short bed with a thin mattress and got up at five or six in the morning.

His day usually went like this. “When his majesty was already dressed and shod,” wrote Voltaire, “the stoic gave a few minutes to the sect of Epicurus: he called to himself two or three favorites, lieutenants of his regiment, or pages, or haiduks, or young cadets. They drank coffee. The one to whom the handkerchief was thrown remained for a quarter of an hour alone with him. Things did not reach the last extremes, in view of the fact that the prince, during the life of his father, suffered greatly from his fleeting hobbies and was poorly cured. He could not play the first role; had to be content with second roles. When schoolchildren's fun ended, they were replaced by state affairs. Soon the minister appeared with large bundles of papers. Looking through them, the king made notes in two or three words. Based on these notes, the secretaries then drew up complete replies and resolutions. At 11 o'clock Friedrich went to the parade ground and inspected his regiment. At this hour, all over Prussia, the colonels were reviewing their regiments. Then the king went to dine with his brothers, two generals and chamberlains, and again went to his office. Until five or six hours he worked on his literary compositions. Among them, a special place was occupied by the historical works "History of Brandenburg" and "Modern History" (in which he, following the model of ancient authors, outlined the history of his reign). Frederick himself was more proud of his philosophical books. Even in his youth, he wrote a curious essay "Antimachiavel", in which with great enthusiasm he refuted the "unprincipled" provisions of Machiavelli's famous book "The Sovereign". (As you know, when he became king, he acted completely in the spirit of Machiaveli's advice.) In addition, he wrote instructions and regulations for his officers, as well as many poems in French. As a rule, the king wrote only sketches, for the most part rather mediocre; an elegant form was given to them by special poets hired for a lot of money. Friedrich's letters are much more important for posterity; there are a huge number of them left after him. They are written in a surprisingly capacious, energetic language, they reveal the extraordinary liveliness and fertility of the mind and Friedrich's encyclopedic education, as well as a rich knowledge of people and the world. If the king got tired, he called the reader, who until seven read some book to the king. The day usually ended with a small concert, with the king himself playing the flute and often gizmos of his own composition. He was a big fan of music. The evening table was served in a small hall, decorated with a painting of Peon, painted according to the drawing of the king. It had such a frivolous content that it seemed almost obscene. At this hour, the king sometimes began a philosophical conversation with the guests, and, according to the evil-speaking Voltaire, it might seem to an outside observer that he hears the conversation of the seven Greek sages sitting in a brothel. Neither women nor priests were ever admitted to the court. The king lived without courtiers, without advice and without worship. Holidays were held only a few times a year. Shortly before Christmas, Frederick used to come from Potsdam to Berlin and staged magnificent operas, balls and feasts in the capital. Not only the court, but all Berliners took part in them. Having thus lived in luxury and splendor for about a month, the king again returned to his modest Potsdam palace. In 1756 this pleasant life was interrupted in the most unexpected way.

The Peace of Aachen, which put an end to the War of the Austrian Succession, could not satisfy either Austria or Saxony. Maria Theresa spent the next eight years preparing for a new European war. The growing power of Prussia seriously alarmed other great powers. In 1753, Empresses Maria Theresa and Elizabeth 1 entered into an alliance against Frederick. Then he was joined by the Saxon Elector Augustus. In 1756 a war broke out between England and France. The Prussian king, as an ally of France, was to participate in it and attack Hanover. Instead, Frederick entered into negotiations with George II and offered him a defensive and offensive alliance against France. He hoped that with the help of England he would win Russia over to his side, since both powers had previously been in close alliance, but he miscalculated. The Anglo-Prussian alliance suddenly changed the whole European system in one minute. Louis XV began to seek rapprochement with his old enemy - Austria and joined the anti-Prussian alliance. Following France, Sweden joined the coalition. Prussia was surrounded by enemies and had to prepare for a stubborn war.

Through his spies, whom he had at all European courts, Frederick knew that the opponents were. ki are preparing to attack his possessions in 1757, and decided to strike a preemptive strike. Leaving barriers in East Prussia and Silesia, he entered Saxony at the head of an army of 56,000. The Saxon regiments gathered on the vast plain between Pirna and Königsstein. The position here was well fortified and almost impregnable, but due to the sudden outbreak of war, sufficient provisions were not brought to the camp in time. Friedrich easily occupied Leipzig, Dresden and announced that he was temporarily taking Saxony under his control. The army of Augustus, surrounded by the Prussians on all sides, lost the supply of food. Two Austrian armies hurried to the rescue of an ally in trouble. One of them was stopped by Schwerin, and the other was met by the king himself near the town of Lozowitz near the Elbe and, after a six-hour battle, forced to retreat. The news of the Prussian victory robbed the starving Saxons of their last hope. On the night of October 15, they decided to make their way to the Czech Republic, left their fortified camp, but could not go far. Surrounded near the city of Lilienstein, they surrendered to the mercy of the winner. Frederick ordered the officers to go home, and forced the soldiers to join his army. King August III received permission to travel to Warsaw.

By the spring of 1757, Frederick brought the size of his army to 200 thousand people. Meanwhile, all his opponents taken together could put up about 500 thousand soldiers against him. But they acted inconsistently, apart from each other on a broad front. By rapidly transferring troops from one place to another and delivering swift blows, Frederick hoped to successfully resist all the forces of the coalition. First of all, he moved against Austria and in May approached Prague. The Austrians, led by the Prince of Lorraine, were waiting for them in an excellent position. Their left wing rested on the Zhishki mountain and was protected by the fortifications of Prague; the center was on a steep hill, at the foot of which a swamp spread; the right wing occupied a slope, fenced off by the village of Shcherbogol. Intelligence reported to the king that only from this side it was possible to bypass the enemy and attack him on the flank, because here, between the lakes and dams, there are clearings sown with oats, through which the army can easily get through. By order of Friedrich, Field Marshal Schwerin led his regiments around, along the indicated road. Soon, it turned out that the meadows sown with oats were nothing more than drained muddy ponds overgrown with grass. The soldiers were forced to make their way one by one along narrow dams and paths. In other places, entire regiments almost sank completely into the mud and could hardly get out of it. Almost all the guns had to be abandoned. At one o'clock in the afternoon, Schwerin, having overcome all difficulties, formed his soldiers for the attack. The Austrians met the Prussians with heavy artillery fire. The first attack failed. Schwerin snatched the banner from the standard junker, led the soldiers into the second attack, but was hit by grapeshot. General Fouquet took command after him. A shard shattered his hand. Fouquet ordered to tie a sword to a shattered hand and again led the soldiers to attack. This onslaught brought victory to the Prussians. Brovn, who commanded the right flank of the Austrians, was mortally wounded. The attack of the Austrian cavalry was repulsed, and soon Fouquet took possession of the enemy position. At the same time, the Prussian cavalry swiftly attacked the left flank of the Austrians and, after a bloody battle, forced them to flee. Frederick himself, noticing that a gap had formed in the middle of the Austrian army, wedged into it with his regiments and cut the enemy army into two parts. Pressed from all sides, the enemy began to retreat in disarray along the entire front. Up to 40 thousand people managed to take refuge in Prague, the rest were driven until the very night. This brilliant victory cost Friedrich 16,000 killed and wounded.

Following this, the king surrounded Prague and began to lay siege to it. Placing batteries of heavy guns around the city, he subjected it to a terrible bombardment. In a week, the Prussians dropped more than 180,000 bombs on the city and destroyed up to a thousand houses. Entire neighborhoods were engulfed in flames. However, the Prince of Lorraine continued to stubbornly defend himself, hoping for the help of the 60,000-strong army of Daun, which slowly marched towards Prague. Frederick instructed Field Marshal Keith to continue the siege, and he himself with part of the army moved towards Down and on June 18 met with him at Collin. The Austrians managed to take an excellent position: the front of the army was closed by villages, steep hillocks and ruts, and the right wing was protected from the flank by a deep cliff. Heavy artillery was stationed all along the line. Having surveyed the enemy position, Frederick deployed his main forces against Daun's right flank. When the battle began, the generals Ziten and Gulsen knocked the Austrians out of their positions here and began the pursuit. Down had already written a retreat order, but then the circumstances changed. The king suddenly changed his own plan and moved all the reserves against the center of the Austrian army, leaving Ziten without support. At first, the Prussians were successful here too, but then, due to the inconsistency of individual generals, a gap formed between their columns. Daun immediately took advantage of the enemy's miscalculation and threw the Saxon cavalry into the gap. After a desperate resistance, the Prussians fled. In vain the king tried to hold back the retreat - it soon became general. Meanwhile, the brave Ziten, not receiving any help, had to use his cuirassiers instead of infantry, who lay down in whole rows in place from a hail of buckshot. Finally, he himself received a severe concussion in the head and fell unconscious. His soldiers took to flight - a brilliantly started battle ended in complete defeat, and the king had no one to blame but himself. Under Collin, he lost up to 14 thousand of his best soldiers and was forced to stop the siege of Prague. The Austrians, going on the offensive, captured Gabel and Zitau, where the Prussians had large warehouses of ammunition and food. At the same time, Friedrich suffered losses of up to 10 million thalers. He was so upset by the new failure that he even considered suicide, but then he cheered up and began to energetically prepare for a new campaign.

Meanwhile, France, Russia and Sweden entered the war. Leaving instead of himself in Silesia and Bohemia the Duke of Bevernsky, the king with part of his forces set out to meet the French on the banks of the Sala. Already after his departure, the Duke of Bevern had an unsuccessful battle with Charles of Lorraine and retreated to Silesia. The Czech Republic was completely cleared of Prussian troops. Things were not going well in the west either. In the absence of Frederick, the French were opposed by an army recruited from Hanoverians, Hessians and Brunswicks, under the command of the English prince Duke of Cumberland. On July 26, at the Battle of Gastenbeck, she was defeated by the French Marshal d "Este. On September 8, the duke signed peace with the winner and disbanded his army. The French immediately occupied Wesel and Braunschweig and invaded the Prussian provinces along the Elbe. The entire Hanover region and Hesse too was in their hands.The Russian army under the command of Apraksin invaded East Prussia, and the Swedes landed in Stralsund and began to devastate Pomerania.Frederick had to split his forces into parts to counter each advancing enemy.In East Prussia on August 30, General Lewald dealt with Apraksin at Gross-Egersdorf. The Prussians were defeated, but Apraksin did not take advantage of the victory and hastily retreated. Lewald moved into Pomerania and, with his appearance, instilled fear in the Swedes - they fled from the occupied cities, surrendering them without any resistance. But so far the Prussian troops have been successful acted on the borders, the capital was left without protection. In October, a small Austrian corps under the command of General Gaddick approached Berlin. The Austrians robbed all the suburbs. Gaddik demanded 200 thousand thalers of indemnity from the magistrate and safely retreated to the main forces.

Frederick himself tried to stop the advance of the Duke of Richelieu, who replaced Marshal d "Est. In mid-October, news came that the second French army under the command of Prince Soubise had penetrated into Saxony and reached almost Leipzig. Hastily gathering 20 thousand soldiers, the king hurried against him. November 5 a decisive battle took place at Rossbach. Having significantly less strength, Frederick first took up a wait-and-see position in his camp. For some time he watched the ponderous maneuvers of the French, who tried to cover his army from all sides, and, having waited for an opportune moment when their formation was broken, he abandoned attacked his cavalry under the command of the young brave General Seidlitz. With a swift onslaught, the Prussians confused the enemy. Then the infantry arrived, hit with bayonets and completed the rout. Exposure, calculation and a lightning attack brought Frederick victory in just two hours. Soubise lost in killed and captured up to 17 thousand people, while the losses of the Prussians kov were insignificant.

This success breathed courage into Frederick's allies. The English king refused to fulfill the contract concluded by the Duke of Cumberland. The troops disbanded by him were reassembled and placed under the command of the Prussian Field Marshal Duke of Brunswick. Frederick, however, could not rest on his laurels for a long time - the Austrians had already penetrated Silesia, captured the important fortress of Schweidnitz, inflicted a new defeat on Prince Bevernsky (who was captured) and took Breslaul. The king announced that he would not allow the Austrians to winter peacefully in Silesia. On December 5, near the village of Leithen, he gave battle to the Prince of Lorraine. First, the king ordered to attack the right flank of the enemy, and when the prince threw his reserves there, he struck at the left flank. Mixing it, the Prussians began to crowd the center and soon took possession of the village of Leithen, which was located on a dominant height. From here, the Prussian batteries unleashed fierce fire on the retreating Austrians. The rout was completed by a furious cavalry attack. The generals congratulated the king on his brilliant victory, but Frederick replied that it was important to take advantage of the success and not let the enemy recover. Together with volunteers, he moved at night after the retreating enemy and at dawn captured Lissa, the bridge over the Schweidnitz River, and many more prisoners. In total, in the Battle of Leyten, the Austrians lost 6 thousand killed, 21 thousand prisoners and all artillery. Frederick's losses amounted to 5 thousand people. He laid siege to Breslau and took it two weeks later. Another 18,000 Austrians surrendered here.

In February 1758, the Duke of Brunswick went on the offensive against the French, drove them out of Hanover and forced them to retreat as far as the Rhine. Louis XV recalled Richelieu and gave command to the Count of Clermont. In June, the Duke of Brunswick crossed the Rhine and at Krefeld inflicted a heavy defeat on the French. After that, Düsseldorf surrendered, where the main French shops were located. But at the same time, the Russian army, led by General Farmer, occupied East Prussia for the second time. Koenigsberg and Pilau surrendered without a fight. Frederick was bitter to hear about this, but he decided not to leave Silesia until he had done away with the Austrians. In mid-April, he stormed Schweidnitz, then invaded Moravia and blockaded Olmütz. However, without gunpowder and cannonballs, he could not conduct an effective siege, and a large Prussian transport with fire supplies was intercepted by the Austrians. In July, Frederick lifted the siege and retreated to Silesia. He left the war against the Austrians to the Margrave of Brandenburg, and he hurried to East Prussia.

The situation here was very difficult. In August, the Russians under Farmer entered Pomerania and laid siege to Küstrin, where large army stores were located. Upon learning of the approach of the king, the Farmer hurried to take a good position near the village of Zorndorf. Here, on August 13, a decisive battle took place. It began in the morning with a strong exchange of artillery fire. Then the Prussian infantry went on the attack without waiting for the cavalry. The farmer noticed this mistake and ordered his cavalry to strike at the attackers. The Prussians were crushed and fled. However, the passage of the cavalry left a large gap in the Russian system. General Seydlitz took advantage of this, hitting the flank of the Russian cavalry. He overturned it, and then with his dragoons and hussars broke into the ranks of the infantry. At this time, the Prussian infantry managed to form up again and came to his aid. A brutal massacre began. The right wing of the Russian army was soon completely defeated, but the center and left flank continued to hold out. Friedrich ordered the batteries to be brought forward and the enemy formation to be dispersed with grapeshot. The Russian cavalry attacked the batteries, but then the same thing that happened before on the right flank was repeated: the Seidlitz cavalrymen mixed the Russian cavalry and after it cut into the infantry formation. The attack by the grenadiers supported the success of the dragoons. A fierce hand-to-hand fight began. Neither side was willing to back down. Only darkness put an end to the battle. Both Farmer and Friedrich considered themselves victorious. All night the troops remained under arms. It seemed that in the morning the battle would begin with renewed vigor, but the terrible fatigue of the soldiers and the lack of ammunition made it impossible. After standing for two days on the battlefield, the Russians retreated to Poland for winter quarters. Frederick lost up to 13 thousand soldiers in this battle, Fermor - about 19 thousand.

Meanwhile, in the absence of Frederick, the Austrians entered Saxony and began to threaten Dresden. In September, the king gathered the main forces against them. He was eager to give a general battle, but General Down took a strong position and did not want to accept the battle. Then Friedrich moved to the Austrian shops in Lauzation. Realizing the danger that threatened him, Daun hurriedly left the place, followed the Prussian army and on October 10 blocked Frederick's path near the village of Gochkirch. A master of defensive warfare, he, as always, chose an excellent position: his army stood on the hillocks and could keep all the lowlands under fire. For three days Frederick stood in front of these positions and finally decided to retreat. But he did not have time to carry out his intention - on the night of October 13-14, Daun quietly raised his soldiers and secretly moved against the Prussians. Part of the troops, he ordered to bypass the Prussian camp and attack him from the rear. At five in the morning the attack began, which was a complete surprise for the king. Only excellent discipline helped the Prussians withstand this cruel blow. Everywhere a stubborn battle began, in which the best commanders of Frederick fell: Field Marshal Keith and Prince Moritz of Dessau. With the onset of the day, Frederick began to withdraw his regiments from the battle and retreated. In this battle, he lost 9 thousand people, however, Daun did not achieve a decisive victory either - Saxony remained in the hands of the Prussians.

Despite a number of brilliant successes, the position of Prussia became more and more difficult from year to year: numerous enemies began to overcome her. In 1759, the king had to abandon offensive actions and tried only to repel blows. The beginning of this campaign was unsuccessful for him. The French captured Frankfurt and established communication with the Austrian army. In April, the Duke of Brunswick was defeated by them at Bergen and retreated to the Weser. In the summer he took revenge at Minden and stopped the advance of the enemy. Frederick himself began the year by destroying Russian shops in Poland, destroying a three-month supply of food for fifty thousand people. At the same time, his brother, Prince Heinrich, destroyed all the Austrian shops in Bohemia. The king remained in front of the Austrian army and guarded every move. He sent General Wedell against the Russians. The new Russian commander-in-chief Saltykov defeated him utterly at Palzig, went to Crossen and here connected with the 18,000th corps of Laudon. The news of this shocked Friedrich. He handed over the leadership of the Saxon army to his brother Heinrich, and he himself moved towards the enemy with 40 thousand. On August 1, a battle took place near the village of Kunersdorf. In the morning, the Prussians attacked Saltykov's left flank and completely upset him, capturing over a hundred guns and several thousand prisoners. The king was jubilant. He no longer doubted the final success and even sent messengers to Berlin with the joyful news of victory. But to complete the success, he had to support the initial success with a cavalry attack and artillery fire. However, his cavalry, occupied on the right flank, did not ripen in time. The guns also arrived at the indicated positions with a great delay. Taking advantage of this, Count Rumyantsev, who commanded the center of the Russian army, together with Laudon, hit the flank of the advancing Prussians and overturned them. Even the brave Seidlitz could not improve the situation - his squadrons were upset and fled. After that, the outcome of the battle became doubtful. Friedrich shifted the direction of the main attack and ordered the capture of Mount Spitsberg, which dominated the area. It was perfectly fortified and defended by selected Russian and Austrian units. Several times the Prussians approached Spitsberg and rolled back with huge losses. Finally, under fierce Russian fire, they fled. Seeing that everything was over, Frederick, in complete despair, stopped in the most dangerous place of the battle, under fierce fire, and exclaimed: “Is there really not a single cannonball for me here! » Two horses were killed under him, his uniform was shot through in several places, and three adjutants fell near him. Finally, the ball hit his third horse in the chest. Frederick was almost forcibly taken away from the fire by several hussars. In the evening, he wrote to his minister Finkenstein in Berlin: “Out of 40,000 people, I have only 3,000 left. I can no longer have an army. Think about the security of Berlin. I will not survive my misfortune... Farewell forever!”

But very soon the king became convinced that his fear and despair were exaggerated. In the Battle of Kunersdorf, he lost about 20 thousand people. A few days later, up to 18 thousand soldiers gathered around him. With them, he crossed the Oder and began to prepare for the battle under the walls of Berlin. However, he waited in vain for the enemy - the victors did not take advantage of their victory. Having quarreled with Down, who was slow to advance and did not give the Russians provisions, Saltykov retreated to Poland in the fall. But while the king guarded the Russians, the imperial army, led by the Duke of Zweibrück, captured all of Saxony, including Dresden and Leipzig. Autumn and most of the winter were spent fighting the Austrians. At the cost of enormous efforts, the king succeeded in driving them out of many Saxon cities. At the same time, Frederick lost more people from frost than in the bloodiest of his battles.

In 1760, Friedrich began to experience an acute need for soldiers. He had to enlist all the prisoners in his troops. In addition, about 60,000 more recruits were captured throughout Germany by promises, deceit and direct violence. In order to keep this motley crowd in subjection, the king established the most severe discipline in the troops. By the beginning of the campaign, Frederick had about 90 thousand soldiers under arms. In July, Friedrich proceeded to Dresden. But all attempts to recapture him ended in failure. The king has only reduced one of the finest cities in Germany to ruins. Meanwhile, the Austrians were gaining victories in Silesia and captured Glatz. Friedrich left Dresden and went against them. His old adversary Daun was preparing a trap for the king: he sent Laudon's corps behind the lines of the Prussian army and was preparing to hit it from two sides. Friedrich guessed about the trouble that threatened him, with skillful maneuvers he destroyed this plan and defeated the opponents one by one. On August 14, at Liegnitz, the king met with Laudon. A bitter battle ensued. Having repelled all the attacks of the Austrians, the Prussians themselves went on the offensive and drove them off with great loss. A few hours later Daun appeared, Frederick allowed part of his army to cross the Black River, suddenly attacked it and defeated it. Upon learning of Loudon's defeat, Daun retreated behind the Katzbach. In both battles, the Austrians lost about 10,000 soldiers.

Having heard about the defeat of the allies, Saltykov moved to Silesia and laid siege to Kolberg. In autumn, Saltykov sent Chernyshev's corps to Berlin, which on October 9 solemnly entered the Prussian capital. The Russians maintained exemplary order in the city, but demanded 2 million thalers of indemnity from the population and destroyed all weapons factories. Friedrich hastily came to the rescue of Berlin. However, Chernyshev, without waiting for the king, left the city a week after its capture. Meanwhile, taking advantage of the retreat of the Prussian army, the Austrians and the Imperials occupied all of Saxony. Frederick turned back and learned that Daun had stationed his army in the fortified Torgau camp. The king decided to drive him out of there, although he understood that this was an almost hopeless undertaking: the left wing of the Austrians adjoined the Elbe, the right wing was protected by heights on which powerful batteries were located, and the front was covered by forests and swamps. The king divided the army into two parts and one, under the command of General Ziten, moved around the Austrian positions, ordering her to launch an attack from the rear. He himself attacked Down from the front. When the Prussians emerged from the forest, they were met by the fire of 200 Austrian guns. The hail of grapeshot was so strong that five Prussian battalions were killed before they could even fire a single shot. Friedrich dismounted from his horse and himself led the soldiers into the attack. The Prussians broke into the heights and took possession of the batteries. It seemed that victory was already on their side. But then the furious attack of the Austrian cuirassiers and dragoons forced the Prussians to retreat. New attack attempts were unsuccessful. Night fell and the fighting stopped. Frederick was unable to drive the enemy from his positions, and this was tantamount to defeat. However, the king stubbornly refused to believe in failure and announced that in the morning he would resume the battle. Meanwhile, Ziten went to the rear of the Austrians, and at night the battle resumed. At the glow of fires, the soldiers of Cyten went on the attack and captured the Siptitsky Heights. Down was injured. General d "0nnel, who replaced him, gave the order to retreat. At dawn, the frustrated Austrian army left its impregnable positions and retreated beyond the Elbe.

This victory, wrested in almost hopeless circumstances, was extremely important for Frederick after the Berlin failure and disheartened his enemies. All Silesia and most of Saxony were again in the hands of the Prussians.

In 1761, Frederick was barely able to muster an army of 100,000. He sent brother Heinrich with 32 thousand to Saxony against Daun, gave Prince Eugene of Württemberg II thousand and instructed him to defend Pomerania from the Russians, and he himself went to Silesia with the rest of the army and tried to prevent the Russians from connecting with the Austrians. Despite all his efforts, the allies united at the end of August and now had 135,000 against the 50,000 strong royal army. Friedrich retreated to Bunzelwitz and occupied a fortified camp here. To raise the spirit of the troops, the king was with his soldiers day and night, ate the same food with them and often slept by the bivouac fire. One day, after a stormy rainy night spent in a soldier's tent, the king said to General Ziten: "I have never had such a comfortable overnight stay." “But there were puddles in your tent!” Zieten objected. "That's the convenience," answered Friedrich, "drinking and bathing were at my fingertips." The allies surrounded the Prussian camp from all sides, trying to stop the supply of food. Hunger and disease set in. Fortunately for Friedrich, the Russians and Austrians constantly quarreled among themselves and did not even think about active actions. As soon as autumn began, they dispersed without doing anything.

After the Russians left, Laudon, who commanded the Austrians, captured Schweidnitz with a sudden blow.

At the same time, Rumyantsev, who was operating in Pomerania, inflicted a severe defeat on the Prince of Württemberg and laid siege to Kolberg. On December 5, the city capitulated. But soon after this sad news, another message came - on January 5, Frederick's implacable opponent, the Russian Empress Elizabeth, died. Peter III ascended the Russian throne, who never concealed his ardent sympathy for Prussia and its king. As soon as he took power, he hastened to conclude a truce and ordered his regiments to immediately separate from the Austrians. Peace was concluded in April. Sweden followed suit the following month. Frederick was able to draw all his forces against the Austrians and gathered an army of 60,000. His first concern was to recapture Schweidnitz. After a two-month siege, the city surrendered on 9 October. Silesia again became entirely Prussian. Twenty days later, near Freiberg, Prince Henry defeated the Austrian and imperial armies. In the autumn, England and France made peace between themselves. Austria remained Frederick's last opponent. Maria Theresa was unable to continue the war and also agreed to negotiate. On February 16, 1763, the Peace of Hubertsburg was signed, ending the Seven Years' War. All powers retained pre-war borders. Silesia and the county of Glacke remained with Prussia. Although the war did not bring territorial gains to Frederick, it brought him great fame throughout Europe. Even in France and Austria, he had many enthusiastic supporters who deservedly considered the Prussian king the best commander of his time.

Frederick spent the last quarter century of his reign in peace. He had to work hard to establish order and prosperity in the kingdom, upset by the war. During the seven years of the war, the population decreased by half a million people, many cities and villages lay in ruins. The king actively took up the restoration of the country. The devastated provinces received financial assistance, all the grain from army stores was distributed to the peasants, and the king ordered them to give 35,000 convoy horses. To strengthen finances, the king in three years withdrew from circulation all the damaged coins, which he was forced to issue during the war years, and ordered them to be re-minted into full-weight thalers. The population decline was partly replenished by attracting colonists from other lands. In foreign relations, Frederick tried to maintain a friendly alliance with Russia, supported her in the war with Poland, but at the same time did not forget about his own interests. In 1772, he very cleverly raised the question of the division of Poland, suggesting that Catherine II thus reward herself for the costs in the Turkish war. During the first partition, he himself received West Prussia with the mouth of the Vistula.

Behind these worries, old age approached him. Friedrich was never in good health. In old age, he began to suffer from attacks of gout and hemorrhoids. In recent years, dropsy has been added to them. In January 1786, when his comrade-in-arms, General Zieten, died, Friedrich said: “Our old Zieten fulfilled his appointment as a general even in his death. In wartime, he always led the vanguard - and in death he went ahead. I commanded the main army - and I will follow him. His prediction came true a few months later.

All the monarchs of the world. Western Europe. Konstantin Ryzhov. Moscow, 1999

Frederick II the Great

Friedrich was born in Berlin into the royal family of the Hohenzoller dynasty. His father Friedrich Wilhelm I did not approve of his son's hobbies for philosophy and art and enrolled him in his Life Guards, wanting to make him primarily a military man in purely Prussian traditions. At the age of twenty, the heir tried to escape to France with his fellow officer, but they were captured. Friedrich was punished by his father with all severity: he had to be present at the execution of his comrade, after which he was escorted to prison under escort. The conclusion, of course, was not long.

After 18 months of arrest, Friedrich decided to submit to his harsh father and his fate.

In 1732, the heir to the Prussian throne received the Ruppinsky infantry regiment under his command.

In 1740, three days after his father's death, Frederick was proclaimed King of Prussia. Together with the throne, he inherited an exemplarily organized small army - only 80 thousand people.

Frederick II immediately began to carry out major state reforms. He abolished censorship and introduced freedom of the press. The kingdom banned torture of civilian prisoners. But the main ones were not civil transformations, but military ones.

In the army, Frederick sought to establish his absolute one-man command. After the celebrations of his accession to the throne, he told the generals: "In my kingdom, the only source of power is myself."

The new Prussian monarch, with traditional German punctuality, introduced genuine law abidance in the kingdom.

Under Frederick the Great, Prussia, the largest among the German states, embarked on the path of militarization.

With the accession to the Prussian throne of Frederick II, the situation in Europe became tense. The reason for this was the aggressive aspirations of the young king.

As a talented commander, Frederick II first made himself known during the first (1740-1742) and second (1744-1745) Silesian wars, which became part of the pan-European struggle for the Austrian inheritance.

The Seven Years' War began on August 17 with a Prussian attack on neighboring Saxony. The 95,000th royal army surrounded the 18,000th Saxon army, and on October 4 it capitulated.

King Frederick showed himself in the Seven Years' War not only as a good tactician, but also as a strategist. The victories came one after anotherHowever, the situation in the Seven Years' War changed dramatically with the entry of the Russian Empire into it.

Appearing in the theater of operations, the Russian army immediately demonstrated its superiority over the Prussians. First, Russia captured East Prussia. However, the Austrian allies sought to use the Russian army primarily to protect their own borders.

Soon, all the previously won brilliant victories of Frederick II were nullified by the Russian army.

Only a change in the political situation in the Russian capital of St. Petersburg saved Prussia from complete defeat. On December 25, 1761, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna died. The admirer of Frederick II, Peter III, who reigned on the Russian throne, immediately withdrew Russia from the Seven Years' War, returned to Prussia all the territories occupied by the Russian army and concluded an alliance treaty with Berlin. Sweden followed Russia out of the war.

Frederick the Great was a major military leader of his time. He expounded his military-theoretical views in a number of works. The basis of his strategy was maneuvering in the theater of operations in order to deprive the enemy of his supply bases, a surprise attack on the enemy at the very beginning of the war.

In tactics, Frederick II used the so-called oblique attack, which helped him win over the Austrians, Saxons and French, but not over the Russians. He assigned a decisive role to rifle salvo fire from infantry. The heavy Prussian cuirassier cavalry was used massively in the main direction.

Following the example of Peter I, Friedrich created horse artillery, which significantly increased the maneuverability of the Prussian army.

However, for all its innovation, the military art of Frederick II was distinguished by great stereotypes, a predilection for the tactical principles he had learned once and for all. Under him, the training and education of the Prussian troops was reduced to everyday drill and cane discipline. After his death, the cult of the king-commander flourished in Germany for a long time, whom his admirers affectionately called "old Fritz".

Used materials from the site http://100top.ru/encyclopedia/

Prussian king

FRIEDRICH II (Friedrich II) (1712–1786), Prussian king from the Hohenzollern dynasty, nicknamed Frederick the Great during his lifetime. Third son of Frederick William I and Sophia Dorothea of ​​Hanover, sister of King George II of England. Born January 24, 1712 in Berlin. Two older brothers died in childhood, and Frederick became heir to the Prussian throne. The future king received a severe ascetic upbringing. His father, who was called the “soldier king” (Soldatenknig), was a zealous Protestant, he defended the interests of his dynasty with remarkable energy and determination, creating an efficient, extremely centralized military-bureaucratic machine aimed solely at maintaining the political and military power of Prussia. In his youth, the variously gifted crown prince was fond of French literature and art, played the flute, did not shy away from secular entertainment, although they were condemned by his father, a strict puritan. Friedrich Wilhelm feared that his son's frivolous hobbies would have a detrimental effect on the fate of the heir, and hence the state, and sought to break Frederick's will; the son, in turn, did not like the ascetic lifestyle of his father and his predilection for military pursuits. The formation of character. When Frederick turned 18, his mother, sympathetic to his moods, conceived a double marriage: Frederick and the English princess Amelia, as well as his equally unhappy sister Wilhelmina and the Prince of Wales in his father's house. For a number of reasons, the king refused this option. Distressed, Frederick wanted to flee to England while traveling with his father to southwestern Germany in August 1730. The plan was revealed, and Frederick was brought before a military court as a traitor. The enraged king was only going to scare his son, but the accomplice and friend of the crown prince, Lieutenant Katte, paid for his act with his life and was executed under the windows of the cell where Friedrich was kept. The prince was imprisoned in the Kustrin fortress for 6 weeks, then, by order of the king, he lived for two years in the city of Kustrin without the right to leave its borders. There he received knowledge related to agriculture, economics and public service.

In 1732, Frederick received a regiment under his command, and in 1733, at the behest of his father, he married Princess Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick. In 1736 he was allowed to set up his own court in Rheinsberg. Here he devoted himself to the study of philosophy, history, poetry, enjoyed music, amateur theater and conversations among educated and witty people. Friedrich dreamed of the glory of the writer (he wrote in French), but over time, he increasingly felt his calling as a monarch, continuing the state and military traditions of Prussia.

Three years before ascending the throne, he wrote to his father's chief minister that the king had made the necessary preparations for war, dictated by wisdom and caution, and he, Frederick, might be destined to use these preparations and win glory. In 1739, a book was born, the title of which - Anti-Machiavell (Anti-Machiavell) - was given by Voltaire, with whom the crown prince corresponded for a long time. In this treatise, Friedrich painted the image of a peace-loving and enlightened sovereign. The monarch is the first servant of his country, his power is unlimited, his duty is to take care of the welfare of the people. Friedrich did not hide his contempt for petty German rulers, who were satisfied only with the external attributes of power. He himself strove for real power.

early years of government. In May 1740, the 28-year-old crown prince became King Frederick II of Prussia. His first actions - the abolition of torture and the restoration of the Academy of Sciences (it was headed by a French president) - testified that the monarch shared the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment. Moreover, in the first months of his reign, on the margins of a document, he left a famous note: “One should be tolerant of all religions ... everyone is looking for a way to salvation in his own way.” However, he had already written to Voltaire that, in the name of the interests of the state, he said goodbye to poetry, music and entertainment.

In October 1740, Emperor Charles VI unexpectedly died, and the opportunity arose that Frederick had longed for - to gain glory in the war and make important territorial gains. The Habsburg lands were inherited by the 23-year-old daughter of Charles VI, Maria Theresa. Her succession was based on the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, in which Charles VI declared the Austrian Empire indivisible and established a succession to the throne that allowed the crown to pass to a daughter if the emperor did not leave a son. Nevertheless, Frederick foresaw that Bavaria and other states would contest Maria Theresa's right to the Austrian hereditary lands, and decided to take advantage of Austria's apparent weakness. He intended to capture Silesia, part of which Prussia had long claimed. Had Maria Theresa agreed with his claims, Frederick would have recognized her right to the succession and helped elect her husband as emperor. Against the advice of his foreign minister, he decided to strike first and then move on to negotiations. Using the surprise factor, he easily captured Silesia, but Maria Theresa was not going to give up. A series of diplomatic demarches followed, and the War of the Austrian Succession began.

In this war, Frederick's aggressive policy made him famous as a commander, but his diplomacy - however, like the diplomacy of most of his opponents - did not take much into account the principle of the inviolability of treaties. So, in 1742, he deceived his French allies, secretly concluding a Breslau separate peace with Austria, and left the war (1st Silesian War). In 1744, again with the support of France, he resumed the war with Austria (2nd Silesian War), which ended with the Treaty of Dresden (1745), which secured most of Silesia to Prussia.

Lifestyle. Hasty, albeit successful, actions in Silesia expanded the scope of Frederick's duties. And yet he continued to be keenly interested in literature, philosophy and music. According to Voltaire, his capital was "Sparta in the morning and Athens in the evening". The life of the king was controlled by a clock and a calendar, Frederick slept only five or six hours a day and, constantly doing state affairs, found time for a training ground, for receiving guests, and for studying literature and music. The year was rigidly planned - regular visits to numerous residence palaces, maneuvers and inspection trips.

In 1750, the king persuaded Voltaire to settle in Berlin and made him his personal secretary, but in six months these two brilliant people ceased to build illusions about each other's characters, and close communication for more than two years ended in a complete break (but their correspondence continued). Voltaire assisted Friedrich in his Memoirs on the history of Brandenburg, published in 1751. The king also wrote a more lengthy historical study called The History of My Time; however, these works became available to the reading public only in the middle of the 19th century, and his Political Reflections and Political Correspondence were published only in the 20th century.

Government system. Frederick understood well that in order to hold Silesia, Prussia must remain strong and constantly on the alert; to this he gave all his strength for ten years of peace - from the Dresden Peace to the beginning of the Seven Years' War (1756-1763). He adhered to the extreme form of autocracy introduced by his father, which involved the concentration of all power in the hands of the monarch. Wherever the king was, the ministers sent him reports and proposals in writing, which he approved, making meaningful remarks in the margins. On their basis, cabinet secretaries drew up decrees signed by him, which were then enforced by government departments.

“A well-functioning government,” the king wrote in 1752, “should represent a system as tightly connected as a system of concepts in philosophy. All his decisions should be well justified; economic, foreign and military policy should contribute to a single goal - to consolidate the power of the state and increase its power. For the sake of this goal, Frederick sought to improve the system of government, which had reached a high degree of centralization even under his father.

The General Directory created by his father gradually lost importance under Frederick, who, in his impatience, demanded immediate results. Until 1756, three independently functioning ministries were introduced, and after the Seven Years' War, several new departments, including the royal department, which had a bad reputation. The new ministries and departments were responsible only to the king, who personally managed the country's economy.

Economic development. The king sought to improve the welfare of his subjects, but did so only for the sake of developing and strengthening state power. First of all, he increased human resources in sparsely populated possessions - empty lands were forcibly developed, hundreds of new settlements were created, land cultivation was improved, new agricultural crops were introduced, such as potatoes. The resettlement of people from neighboring countries was encouraged. People with capital and technical skills were especially welcome if they contributed to the growth of new forms of production and the development of industry. Trade was benefited by improved means of communication, such as the construction of canals to serve Berlin.

These processes were started by Friedrich Wilhelm I, who patronized the local textile industry. Friedrich expanded textile production, introduced the production of silk fabrics. The main goal of his economic policy was the development of industry for the needs of the country, and, if possible, the production of goods for export - including luxury goods that were previously imported from other countries. Although progress was slow at first, some cities, most notably Berlin, greatly increased the output of manufactured goods towards the end of Frederick's reign. New industries were freed from guild restrictions and protected by a system of duties. During the Seven Years' War, Frederick managed to overcome financial difficulties not only with the help of subsidies from Britain, but also thanks to an increase in indirect taxation, which affected mainly the middle class in the cities. After the war, he quickly restored the economy and left behind an army twice the size of his father.

Legislative reform. Frederick's desire to strengthen power in the state underlay the legislative reform carried out by the king at the beginning of his reign. A unified centralized judicial system was created. The state guaranteed civil rights, primarily property rights.

All these reforms were carried out in the spirit of the Enlightenment, but many semi-feudal vestiges remained in the social structure of Prussia, which were closely connected with its military system. Peasants, especially in the east, were still semi-serfs and tied to the land. The sovereign landowner, the junker, whose estate was serviced by the corvee labor of the peasants (corvee labor reached 5-6 days a week) was the sovereign owner. The king could not curtail the privileges of the junkers, who supplied the state with officers and senior civil servants. However, in order to improve the recruitment system, he opposed the demolition of peasant households, carried out by the junkers in order to increase their arable land and reduce the number of recruits and tax revenues.

Successes of Frederick's reign. The Seven Years' War, in which the personal qualities of Frederick and the power of the Prussian state were tested, was the result of the capture of Silesia, which at the beginning of his reign belonged to Austria. When it became clear to the king that Prussia could be attacked by coalition troops of a number of European powers (Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, Saxony, etc.), he was again the first to strike in August 1756. However, Frederick owed the saving outcome of the further struggle not so much to his courage and resourcefulness, but to a great deal of luck: the death of the Russian Empress Elizabeth led to a radical change in the political course of Russia. Prussia did not gain much from the war, but the struggle of the king against the superior forces of the coalition made a strong impression on Europe. The status of Prussia as a great power was strengthened, which it was recognized by the Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763).

Having entered into an alliance with Russia in 1764, he participated with her and Austria in the first partition of Poland (1772) and acquired West Prussia. After the death of the childless elector of Bavaria, Maximilian III Joseph (1777), he managed to prevent the annexation by Austria of a large part of Bavaria. At the end of his life, Frederick, playing on the feeling of fear of Austria in the small states of Germany, created the Union of Princes directed against her (1785).

Last years. Frederick's personal habits and convictions, as well as the nature of his reign, changed little even in advanced years. He lived in Potsdam near Berlin, in the beautiful Sanssouci Palace, built just after his first war, where he was surrounded by books, paintings and works of art. The king spared no expense in building imposing public buildings like the Berlin Opera, built by the architect Georg Knobelsdorff in 1743, but he did not change his skepticism about German literature. Frederick the Great died in Potsdam on August 17, 1786.

Materials of the encyclopedia "The World Around Us" are used

FRIEDRICH II (January 24, 1712, Berlin - August 17, 1786, Potsdam), Prussian king from 1740, commander. Expressing the class interests of the Prussians and Junkers, he pursued a reactionary, militaristic policy aimed at strengthening absolutism within the country and carrying out aggression against neighboring states. Invading F. II's aspirations repeatedly created tension in Europe. During the 1st (1740-42) and 2nd (1744-45) Silesian Wars (see Austrian inheritance), F. II captured most of Silesia from Austria. Having entered into an alliance with England, he unleashed the Seven Years' War of 1756-63, during which the Prussian troops inflicted a number of defeats on the Austrians. and French troops. But the successes of F. II were nullified by the victories of the Rus. troops, to-rye in 1760 captured Berlin. Only as a result of favorable political conditions for Prussia. circumstances, she escaped complete defeat. As commander F. II made a certain contribution to the development of the military. claims of the era of late feudalism, outlining their military-theoretical. views in several essays. The basis of the strategy of F. II considered maneuvering in the theater of war. actions in order to deprive the pr-ka of its supply bases. Wars and battles, as a rule, began with a sudden, unexpected attack on the avenue. In tactics, he introduced the so-called. oblique battle formation, which assigned a decisive role in battle to rifle fire, which the infantry fired in volleys. He attached great importance to the cavalry, using it massively on Ch. directions. Created, following the example of Peter I, equestrian art. However, the military the suit of F. II was clichéd. The training and education of the Prus, the troops were reduced to drill. The army was ruled by cruel cane discipline. F. II created the strongest and considered the best in the West. In Europe, a mercenary army (up to 200 thousand people), approx. 2/3 state budget. In the Seven Years' War, the army of F. II conducted successful operations against Western Europe. armies (Rosbach, 1757; Leuten, 1757, etc.), however, in battles with the Russian. troops, distinguished by high morale and combat qualities, good training and tact, training, the Prus, the army suffered a complete defeat (Gros-Egersdorf, Kunersdorf). Noble-bourgeois. historiography and literature, exaggerating the merits of F. II, made a lot of efforts to create his cult. Germ, the militarists chose F. II as their idol, elevating him to the rank of "great", "brilliant" commander.

Used materials of the Soviet military encyclopedia

Read further:

Friedrich Wilhelm I(1688-1740), King of Prussia from the Hohenzollern dynasty, father of Frederick II the Great.

Svetlana Flegontova. On the question of the history and philosophy of national education(on the education system introduced by Friedrich).

Literature:

Gintsberg L.I. Friedrich II. - Questions of History, 1988, No. 11

Koni F. History of Frederick the Great. M., 1997

Tupolev B.M. Frederick II, Russia and the first partition of Poland. – New and recent history, 1997, No. 5