History is written by the winners. We know a lot about the heroes of the Red Army, but almost nothing about the heroes of the White Army. Let's fill this gap.

Anatoly Pepelyaev

Anatoly Pepelyaev became the youngest general in Siberia - at the age of 27. Prior to this, the White Guards under his command took Tomsk, Novonikolaevsk (Novosibirsk), Krasnoyarsk, Verkhneudinsk and Chita.
When Pepelyaev’s troops occupied Perm abandoned by the Bolsheviks, about 20,000 Red Army soldiers were captured by the young general, who, on his orders, were released home. Perm was liberated from the Reds on the day of the 128th anniversary of the capture of Ishmael, and the soldiers began to call Pepelyaev "Siberian Suvorov."

Sergei Ulagai

Sergei Ulagay, a Kuban Cossack of Circassian origin, was one of the most prominent cavalry commanders of the White Army. He made a serious contribution to the defeat of the North Caucasian front of the Reds, but especially the 2nd Kuban Corps Ulagay distinguished himself during the capture of the "Russian Verdun" - Tsaritsyn - in June 1919.

General Ulagay went down in history as the commander of the special forces group of the Russian Volunteer Army, General Wrangel, who landed troops from the Crimea to the Kuban in August 1920. To command the landing force, Wrangel chose Ulagay "as a popular Kuban general, it seems, the only one of the famous who did not stain himself with robbery."

Alexander Dolgorukov

The hero of the First World War, who for his exploits was awarded admission to the retinue of His Imperial Majesty, Alexander Dolgorukov proved himself in the Civil War. On September 30, 1919, his 4th Rifle Division in a bayonet battle forced the Soviet troops to retreat; Dolgorukov captured the crossing over the Plyussa River, which soon made it possible to occupy Struga Beliye.
Dolgorukov got into literature. In the novel by Mikhail Bulgakov "The White Guard" he is bred under the name of General Belorukov, and is also mentioned in the first volume of the trilogy of Alexei Tolstoy "Walking through the torments" (attack of the cavalry guards in the battle of Kaushen).

Vladimir Kappel

The episode from the film "Chapaev", where the Kappelites go on a "psychic attack", is fictional - Chapaev and Kappel never crossed paths on the battlefield. But Kappel was a legend without cinema.

During the capture of Kazan on August 7, 1918, he lost only 25 people. In his reports on successful operations, Kappel did not mention himself, explaining the victory by the heroism of his subordinates, up to the sisters of mercy.
During the Great Siberian Ice Campaign, Kappel got frostbite on the feet of both legs - they had to be amputated without anesthesia. He continued to lead the troops and refused a place on the hospital train.
The last words of the general were: "Let the troops know that I was devoted to them, that I loved them and proved it with my death among them."

Mikhail Drozdovsky

Mikhail Drozdovsky with a volunteer detachment of 1,000 people walked 1,700 km from Yassy to Rostov, freed him from the Bolsheviks, then helped the Cossacks defend Novocherkassk.

Drozdovsky's detachment participated in the liberation of both the Kuban and the North Caucasus. Drozdovsky was called "the crusader of the crucified Motherland." Here is his description from Kravchenko's book “Drozdovites from Iasi to Gallipoli”: “Nervous, thin, Colonel Drozdovsky was a type of ascetic warrior: he did not drink, did not smoke and did not pay attention to the blessings of life; always - from Jassy until death - in the same worn jacket, with a worn St. George ribbon in his buttonhole; out of modesty, he did not wear the order itself.

Alexander Kutepov

A colleague of Kutepov’s on the fronts of the First World War wrote about him: “Kutepov’s name has become a household name. It means fidelity to duty, calm determination, intense sacrificial impulse, cold, sometimes cruel will and ... clean hands - and all this is brought and given to the service of the Motherland.

In January 1918, Kutepov twice defeated the Red troops under the command of Sievers near Matveev Kurgan. According to Anton Denikin, "this was the first serious battle in which the art and enthusiasm of the officer detachments were opposed to the furious pressure of the unorganized and badly managed Bolsheviks, mostly sailors."

Sergey Markov

The White Guards called Sergei Markov the "White Knight", "the sword of General Kornilov", the "God of War", and after the battle near the village of Medvedovskaya - the "Guardian Angel". In this battle, Markov managed to save the remnants of the Volunteer Army retreating from Ekaterinograd, destroy and capture the armored train of the Reds, and get a lot of weapons and ammunition. When Markov died, Anton Denikin wrote on his wreath: "Both life and death - for the happiness of the Motherland."

Mikhail Zhebrak-Rusanovich

For the White Guards, Colonel Zhebrak-Rusanovich was a cult figure. For personal prowess, his name was sung in the military folklore of the Volunteer Army.
He firmly believed that "there will be no Bolshevism, but there will be only one United Great Indivisible Russia." It was Zhebrak who brought the Andreevsky flag with his detachment to the headquarters of the Volunteer Army, and soon he became the battle flag of the Drozdovsky brigade.
He died heroically, personally leading the attack of two battalions on the superior forces of the Red Army.

Viktor Molchanov

The Izhevsk division of Viktor Molchanov was awarded Kolchak's special attention - he handed her the St. George banner, and attached the St. George crosses to the banners of a number of regiments. During the Great Siberian Ice Campaign, Molchanov commanded the rearguard of the 3rd Army and covered the retreat of the main forces of General Kappel. After his death, he led the vanguard of the white troops.
At the head of the Insurrectionary Army, Molchanov occupied almost all of Primorye and Khabarovsk.

Innokenty Smolin

In the summer and autumn of 1918, at the head of the partisan detachment of his own name, Innokenty Smolin successfully operated in the rear of the Reds, captured two armored trains. Smolin's partisans played an important role in the capture of Tobolsk.

Mikhail Smolin participated in the Great Siberian Ice Campaign, commanded a group of troops of the 4th Siberian Rifle Division, which, numbering more than 1,800 fighters, came to Chita on March 4, 1920.
Smolin died in Tahiti. In the last years of his life he wrote memoirs.

Sergei Voitsekhovsky

General Voitsekhovsky accomplished many feats, performing the seemingly impossible tasks of the command of the White Army. A faithful “Kolchakist”, after the death of the admiral, he abandoned the assault on Irkutsk and led the remnants of the Kolchak army to Transbaikalia on the ice of Baikal.

In 1939, in exile, being one of the highest Czechoslovak generals, Wojciechowski advocated resistance to the Germans and created the underground organization Obrana národa ("Protection of the People"). Arrested by SMERSH in 1945. Repressed, died in a camp near Taishet.

Erast Hyacinths

Erast Hyacinths in the First World War became the owner of a full set of orders available to the chief officer of the Russian Imperial Army.
After the revolution, he was obsessed with the idea of ​​overthrowing the Bolsheviks and even occupied with friends a number of houses around the Kremlin in order to start resistance from there, but in time he realized the futility of such tactics and joined the White Army, becoming one of the most productive scouts.
In exile, on the eve of and during the Second World War, he took an open anti-Nazi position and miraculously avoided being sent to a concentration camp. After the war, he resisted the forced repatriation of "displaced persons" to the USSR.

Mikhail Yaroslavtsev (Archimandrite Mitrofan)

During the Civil War, Mikhail Yaroslavtsev showed himself to be an energetic commander and distinguished himself by personal prowess in several battles.
Yaroslavtsev embarked on the path of spiritual service already in exile, after the death of his wife on December 31, 1932.

In May 1949, hegumen Mitrofan was elevated to the rank of archimandrite by Metropolitan Seraphim (Lukyanov).

Contemporaries wrote about him: "Always impeccable in the performance of his duty, richly endowed with wonderful spiritual qualities, he was a true consolation for very many of his flock ...".

He was rector of the Church of the Resurrection in Rabat and defended the unity of the Russian Orthodox community in Morocco with the Moscow Patriarchate.

Pavel Shatilov is a hereditary general, both his father and his grandfather were generals. He especially distinguished himself in the spring of 1919, when, in an operation in the area of ​​the Manych River, he defeated a 30,000-strong group of Reds.

Pyotr Wrangel, whose chief of staff was later Shatilov, spoke of him as follows: "a brilliant mind, outstanding abilities, having great military experience and knowledge, with great capacity for work, he was able to work with a minimum expenditure of time."

In the autumn of 1920, it was Shatilov who led the emigration of whites from the Crimea.

The essence of the Civil War and its "culprits"

The discussion on this issue was started by the leaders of political parties. The Bolsheviks believed that the Civil War, a sharper form of class struggle, was forced on the workers and peasants by former exploiters who were trying to restore the monarchy. Opponents of the Bolsheviks claimed that the Bolsheviks were the first to use violence and the opposition was forced to take part in the Civil War.

From a universal point of view, the Civil War is a historical drama, a tragedy of the people. It brought suffering, sacrifice, destruction of the economy and culture. The culprits were both "Reds" and "Whites". History justifies only those who made compromises, not wanting to shed blood. Such a compromise position was occupied by the so-called "third force" - the parties of the Mensheviks, Socialist-Revolutionaries, anarchists.

The civil war, due to its vast expanses, took various forms: military operations of the fronts of regular armies, armed clashes between individual detachments, rebellions and uprisings behind enemy lines, partisan movement, banditry, terror, etc.

"White" movement

Heterogeneous in composition: Russian officers, the old bureaucracy, monarchist parties and groups, liberal Cadets, Octobrists, a number of left-wing political movements that wavered between "whites" and "reds", workers and peasants dissatisfied with the surplus appropriation, the establishment of dictatorship and the suppression of democracy .

The program of the white movement: the restoration of a united and indivisible Russia, the convening of a people's assembly on the basis of universal suffrage, civil liberties, land reform, progressive land legislation.

However, in practice, the solution of many issues caused discontent among the vast majority of the population: agrarian question- decided in favor of the landowner, canceling the Decree on Land. The peasantry vacillated between two evils - the surplus appropriation carried out by the Bolsheviks, and the actual restoration of landownership; national question- the slogan of a united indivisible Russia was associated by the national bourgeoisie with the bureaucratic oppression of the monarchist center. He clearly yielded to the Bolshevik idea of ​​the right of nations to self-determination up to and including secession; work question ~ banned trade unions and socialist parties.

"Red" movement

The basis is the dictatorship of the Bolshevik Party, based on the most lumpenized sections of the working class and the poorest peasantry. The Bolsheviks managed to create a strong Red Army, which in 1921 numbered 5.5 million people, of which 70 thousand workers, more than 4 million peasants and 300 thousand members of the Bolshevik Party.

The Bolshevik leadership pursued a sophisticated political tactic of attracting bourgeois specialists. Former officers and alliances with the middle peasants were involved in relying on the poor. However, for the Bolsheviks themselves it was not clear which of the peasants to classify as the middle peasant, who as the poor peasant and the kulak - all this was a political conjuncture.

Two dictatorships and a petty-bourgeois democracy

The civil war resulted in a struggle between two dictatorships - "white" and "red", between which, as between a rock and a hard place, petty-bourgeois democracy found itself. Petty-bourgeois democracy could not resist anywhere (in Siberia, the Committee of the Constituent Assembly (Komuch) was overthrown by A.V. Kolchak; in the south, the Directory, liquidated by A.I. Denikins, did not last long; in the north, the Socialist-Revolutionary Menshevik government of N.V. Tchaikovsky was overthrown by the Soviet authorities).

Results and lessons of the Civil War

* the country lost more than 8 million people as a result of red and white terror, famine and disease; about 2 million people emigrated, and this is the political, financial, industrial, scientific and artistic elite of pre-revolutionary Russia;

the war undermined the genetic fund of the country, became a tragedy for the Russian intelligentsia, which was looking for truth and truth in the revolution, but found terror;

economic damage amounted to 50 billion gold rubles. Industrial production in 1920 compared with 1913 decreased by 7 times, agricultural - by 38%;

the task of political parties is to seek a peaceful way of transformation and preserve civil peace.

Reasons for the victory of the Bolsheviks

o thanks to the policy of "war communism" they were able to mobilize resources and create a strong army;

o The "white" movement made a number of mistakes: they canceled the Bolshevik Decree on Land; the Bolsheviks pursued a more flexible tactic of negotiations and temporary alliances with anarchists, socialists (Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks); in the national question, the white movement put forward the slogan "Russia is one and indivisible", and the Bolsheviks more flexible - "the right of nations to self-determination up to secession";

o created a powerful propaganda network (political literacy courses, propaganda trains, posters, movies, leaflets);

o proclaimed patriotism - the defense of the socialist Fatherland from the Whites as proteges of the interventionists and foreign states;

o before the workers and peasants, career prospects for growth opened up: nominees from workers and peasants who joined the party occupy administrative positions in the city and countryside.

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Presentation on the topic: Civil War in Russia (in faces and diagrams)

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Civil war in Russia (in persons and schemes) 1. Representatives of the white movement.2. Representatives of the red movement.3. Schemes for the lecture "Civil War in Russia".4. Tasks for self-examination.5. Answers to tasks for self-examination.5. Navigation (start with this line!)6. Sources.

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The presentation includes visual information that will help you better imagine the era under study: - photographic documents of all the working materials of this presentation will help you more vividly imagine the special spirit of the era, introduce you to its most significant characters, in whose hands were the fate of Russia in the first quarter of the 20th century; - schemes (will help to concretize the material on individual issues); - there is also a variant of a test work for self-examination (its successful completion will confirm that the topic under study has been mastered). Pay attention to the buttons to return to the title page and to tasks (answers) for self-examination.

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From top to bottom, left to right: The Armed Forces of the South of Russia in 1919, the hanging of the workers of Yekaterinoslav by the Austro-Hungarian troops during the Austro-German occupation in 1918, the red infantry on the march in 1920, L. D. Trotsky in 1918, cart 1 th Cavalry Army.

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* The struggle for power, their property, rights. * Restoration of the spiritual life of Russia. * Restoration of the former regime of power. WHITE MOVEMENT: reasons for participating in the Civil War *Fight against the Bolsheviks (ideological, political, physical reprisal against criminals who encroached on the foundations of the political system).

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DENIKIN ANTON IVANOVICH December 4, 1872, in the village. Shpetal-Dolny, Warsaw Province, in the family of a retired major, d. August 7, 1947, in Ann Arbor (USA). One of the leaders of the white movement, publicist, memoirist. Graduate of the Imperial Nicholas Academy of the General Staff (1899). He served in various positions, during the years of the Russo-Japanese War, a staff officer for special assignments at the headquarters of the 8th Army Corps; Chief of Staff of the Trans-Baikal Cossack, then the Ural-Trans-Baikal Division, etc. Cavalier of the Orders of St. Stanislav and St. Anna 3rd class with swords and bows and 2nd class with swords. He was arrested for supporting the Kornilov rebellion, after his release he fled to the Don and in 1918 led the 1st Volunteer Division. After the death of Kornilov, he headed the Volunteer Army, from the beginning of 1919 - Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the South of Russia (VSYUR). Retired since 1920; emigrated (Constantinople, London, Brussels, etc.). Author of a series of articles "Army Notes" (1908-14), books "Essays on Russian Troubles" (Paris, 1921-1926), "Officers" (1928), "The Old Army" (1929), "The Russian Question in the Far East" ( 1932), "Brest-Litovsk" (1933), "Who saved the Soviet government from destruction?" (1937), "World events and the Russian question" (1939).

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MIKHAIL VASILIEVICH ALEKSEEV (November 3, 1857, Tver province, Russian Empire - September 25, 1918, Yekaterinodar) - Russian military commander, General Staff General of Infantry (1914), Adjutant General (1916). Active participant in the White movement during the Civil War. Supreme Leader of the Volunteer Army. After the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks left for Novocherkassk, where he became one of the main leaders of the White movement (1917-1918). Under his leadership, at the end of 1917, the so-called Alekseevskaya organization began to form here, which became the core of the Volunteer Army, in which he took the post of its Supreme Leader. General of the General Staff, Infantry General Alekseev did a great job of organizing the military-political structures of not only the Volunteer Army, but also the entire anti-Bolshevik resistance on the territory of European Russia (especially in organizing the anti-Soviet underground in large cities). He spoke from the standpoint of the need to restore the monarchy, but, at the same time, he understood that the proclamation of this slogan in 1918, in the conditions of the “unexperienced revolution”, was associated with considerable political risk. He categorically condemned any form of cooperation of the so-called. "state formations" with the countries of the Fourth Union and declared the principles of "fidelity to Russia's allied obligations in the war." He died on October 8, 1918 from pneumonia.

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DUTOV ALEXANDER ILYCHRod. 5 (17) Aug. 1879, in Kazalinsk, mind. (killed by a Cheka agent) March 7, 1921 in Suidun (China). Russian military leader, active participant in the White movement, ataman of the Orenburg Cossack army (1917). Graduate of the Nikolaev Academy of the General Staff (1908). He was the commander of hundreds of the 1st Orenburg Cossack regiment (until 1916), chairman of the council of the Union of Cossack troops (since March 1917), headed the work of the All-Russian Cossack Congress (1917), military ataman of the Orenburg army (1917). Since 1918, major general, marching ataman of all Siberian Cossack troops. Since 1919, lieutenant general. In March 1920 he was interned in Suidun.

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KALEDIN ALEXEY MAKSIMOVICH (1861-1918), cavalry general (1916). Since 1917, the ataman of the Don Cossack army. Member of the State Conference in Moscow (August 1917). From December 1917 he headed the Don Civil Council in Novocherkassk (together with M. V. Alekseev and L. G. Kornilov). Not having received the support of the Cossacks during the offensive of the Red troops, he resigned the chieftain, committed suicide.

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GRIGORY MIKHAILOVICH SEMYONOV (1890-1946) - Cossack chieftain, leader of the White movement in Transbaikalia and the Far East. In September 1921, Semyonov was forced to leave Russia. Having emigrated to China, the ataman soon left for the USA and Canada, then settled in Japan. With the formation of the state of Manchukuo in 1932, the Japanese provided the chieftain with a house in Dairen, where he lived until August 1945, and appointed a monthly pension of 1000 yen. He headed the Far Eastern Union of Cossacks. G. M. Semenov, on the basis of the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of April 19, 1946, was sentenced to death by hanging with confiscation of property as "an enemy of the Soviet people and an active accomplice of the Japanese aggressors." Vlasevsky, Rodzaevsky, Baksheev were sentenced to death with confiscation of property. Prince Ukhtomsky and Okhotin, “considering their relatively smaller role in anti-Soviet activities”, were sentenced to 20 and 15 years of hard labor, respectively, with confiscation of property (Both died in the camps: Okhotin died in 1948, Prince Ukhtomsky died on August 18, 1953 .). On August 30, 1946, at 11 am, Semyonov was executed.

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KOLCHAK ALEXANDER VASILIEVICH (1873-1920) - Russian military leader, polar explorer, hydrologist, admiral (1918). In 1916-17. commander of the Black Sea Fleet. One of the organizers of the white movement in the Civil War. In 1918-20. "Supreme Ruler of the Russian State"; established a regime of military dictatorship in Siberia, the Urals and the Far East, liquidated by the Red Army and partisans. On November 12, 1919, recognizing his political failure, he transferred the title of "Supreme Ruler of Russia" to A.I. Denikin, and the right to command the troops - to Ataman G.M. Semyonov. He refused to flee to Mongolia, and was handed over to the Political Center by the Czechoslovaks guarding him. Kolchak himself, by order of the Irkutsk Military Revolutionary Committee, was shot.

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*Development of the socialist revolution on a global scale. * Establishment of a new political system. *Struggle for political, economic, social rights of workers and peasants. RED MOVEMENT: reasons for participation in the Civil War *Keep and strengthen power.

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BUDONNY SEMEN MIKHAILOVICH (1883 - October 26, 1973) - Soviet military and statesman; Marshal of the Soviet Union (1935), three times Hero of the Soviet Union (1958, 1963, 1968). Born in the family of a laborer. In 1903 was drafted into the army. Member of the First World War. He was distinguished by great personal courage, became a holder of four St. George crosses, a senior non-commissioned officer. With the beginning of the revolution of 1917. took part in the process of democratization of the army, was elected chairman of the regimental committee. He returned to his homeland, to the Don. He worked in the executive committee of the Salsky District Council and the land district department. For battles with the Cossacks of P. N. Krasnov in January-February 1919. Budyonny was awarded the Order of the Red Banner.

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TUKHACHEVSKY MIKHAIL NIKOLAEVICH (1893-1937) - b. in the family of a landowner who went bankrupt before the revolution of 1905. On April 5, 1918, T. joined the RCP(b). His work on the construction of the workers' and peasants' Red Army begins from the first days of its formation. Together with the work on the creation of the armed forces, T. acts as a strategist. Major operations of the Red Army belong to his operational leadership, and his revolutionary biography is most closely merged with the heroic struggle on the red fronts. During the spring of 1918, T. worked in the military department of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee and carried out tasks for inspecting Red Army formations. He commanded the 1st Army. It was the most difficult time in the work on creating a regular Red Army. In July, during the Muravyov uprising, T. was the last to be arrested and only accidentally escaped execution, released by the Red Army men who understood the situation. In the autumn of 1921, T. was appointed head of the Military Academy of the Red Army. In January 1922, he took command of the Zap troops. front. He was elected a member of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee in 1921 and 1922, a member of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR of all convocations and a member of the Central Executive Committee of the BSSR in 1924 and 1925. He was the chairman of the commission for the preparation of the Field Regulations of the Red Army. Has military scientific work. Marshal of the Soviet Union (1935). Unreasonably repressed, rehabilitated posthumously.

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FRUNZE MIKHAIL VASILIEVICH (1885-1925) - Russian and Soviet political and military figure. In 1905 led the Ivanovo-Voznesensk strike. In 1909-10. was twice sentenced to death. During the Civil War, he commanded the army of the Southern Group of Forces of the Eastern Front, the Eastern, Turkestan Fronts. In 1924-25 - Deputy Chairman and Chairman of the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR, Deputy People's Commissar and People's Commissar for Military and Naval Affairs, at the same time Chief of Staff of the Red Army and Head of the Military Academy. Under the leadership of Frunze, it was carried out in 1924-25. military reform; works in the field of military science, was engaged in the formation of the Soviet military doctrine. Since 1921 member of the Central Committee of the RCP (b), since 1924. candidate member of the Politburo of the Central Committee.

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BLUKHER VASILY KONSTANTINOVICH (b. 1889) - communist worker, one of the prominent workers of the Red Army, awarded three badges of the Order of the Red Banner and a diploma from the government of the Far Eastern Republic. Before World War II, he worked at the Mytishchensky Carriage Works. After the October Revolution, he worked in the Samara Revolutionary Committee, and then took part in the fight against the gene. Dutov, commanding detachments of various composition. In September 1918, the first in the Soviet Republic was awarded the Order of the Red Banner. After the Civil War, he served as commander of the 1st Rifle Corps and commandant and military commissar of the Leningrad Fortified Region. In 1924 he was appointed as a member of the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR for especially important assignments. 1938 (repressed, died under investigation). Soviet military leader, participant in the Civil War, participant in the assault on Perekop (commander of the 51st Infantry Division); Minister of War, Commander-in-Chief of the People's Revolutionary Army of the Far Eastern Republic (1921-22), Commander of the Special Far Eastern Army (1929-38), since 1935 Marshal of the Soviet Union.

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The policy of "war communism" (1918-1920) is a system of socio-economic measures aimed at building socialism and communism and causing the bitterness of the Civil War. POLICY OF "WAR COMMUNISM": characteristic features -food dictatorship; -prohibition of free trade; -introduction of surplus appropriation for almost all types of food; - naturalization of economic relations; - free use of housing, transport; - preparation for the destruction of money; -introduction of universal labor service; -creation of labor armies; -nationalization of banks and all industry; -centralization of state economic management.

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Task number 4. Test1. Who organized the first speech against the Bolsheviks? A. Kerensky B. Alekseev V. Kolchak2. When and by what body was the Red Army created? A. In 1917 VChK B. 1918 SNK V.1919 Kombed3. In May 1918. with the help of the Czechoslovak corps, the Soviet government was overthrown (choose the wrong one) A. in the Volga region B. in the Urals C. in Poland D. in Siberia D. in the Far East 4. In the spring of 1919. as a result of a series of successful operations, the leaders of the white movement set a new task ... A. March on Moscow B. March on Kazan C. March on Petrograd5. B. April 20, 1918 V. November 19, 1918

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Task number 4. Test (continued) 6. Name the economic policy, which is characterized by the following provisions: “it was caused by the emergency conditions of the Civil War”, “assumed the absence of private property, trade, market relations, etc.” 7. This economic measure Bolsheviks was one of the reasons that pushed back the peasants from them. surplus appropriation B. food tax C. Equal distribution of material goods 8. Specify the author of the land reform project, which included the following provisions: the preservation of land rights for the owners, the establishment of certain land norms for each locality and the transition of the rest of the land to small land? the government of Denikin B. the government of Kolchak V. the government of the Bolsheviks.

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The White movement in Russia is an organized military-political movement that was formed during the Civil War in 1917-1922. The White movement united political regimes that were distinguished by the commonality of socio-political and economic programs, as well as the recognition of the principle of sole power (military dictatorship) on an all-Russian and regional scale, the desire to coordinate military and political efforts in the fight against Soviet power.

Terminology

For a long time, the synonym for the White movement was accepted in the historiography of the 1920s. the phrase "general's counter-revolution". In this we can note its difference from the concept of "democratic counter-revolution". Belonging to this category, for example, the Government of the Committee of Members of the Constituent Assembly (Komuch), the Ufa Directory (Provisional All-Russian Government) proclaimed the priority of collegial rather than individual management. And one of the main slogans of the “democratic counter-revolution” became: leadership and continuity from the All-Russian Constituent Assembly of 1918. As for the “national counter-revolution” (the Central Rada in Ukraine, governments in the Baltic states, Finland, Poland, the Caucasus, Crimea), then they, unlike the White movement, put the proclamation of state sovereignty in the first place in their political programs. Thus, the White movement can be legitimately considered as one of the parts (but the most organized and stable) of the anti-Bolshevik movement on the territory of the former Russian Empire.

The term White Movement during the Civil War was used mainly by the Bolsheviks. Representatives of the White movement defined themselves as bearers of legitimate "national power", using the terms "Russian" (Russian Army), "Russian", "All-Russian" (Supreme Ruler of the Russian State).

In social terms, the White movement proclaimed the unification of representatives of all classes of Russian society in the early twentieth century and political parties from monarchists to social democrats. Political and legal continuity from pre-February and pre-October 1917 Russia was also noted. At the same time, the restoration of the former legal relations did not exclude their significant reform.

Periodization of the White movement

Chronologically, in the origin and evolution of the White movement, 3 stages can be distinguished:

First stage: October 1917 - November 1918 - formation of the main centers of the anti-Bolshevik movement

Second stage: November 1918 - March 1920 - Supreme Ruler of the Russian State A.V. Kolchak is recognized by other White governments as the military and political leader of the White movement.

Third stage: March 1920 - November 1922 - activity of regional centers on the outskirts of the former Russian Empire

Formation of the White movement

The White movement originated in the conditions of opposition to the policy of the Provisional Government and the Soviets (the Soviet "vertical") in the summer of 1917. In preparation for the speech of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, Infantry General L.G. Kornilov was attended by both military (“Union of Army and Navy Officers”, “Union of Military Duty”, “Union of Cossack Troops”) and political (“Republican Center”, “Bureau of Legislative Chambers”, “Society for the Economic Revival of Russia”) structures.

The fall of the Provisional Government and the dissolution of the All-Russian Constituent Assembly marked the beginning of the first stage in the history of the White movement (November 1917-November 1918). This stage was distinguished by the formation of its structures and the gradual separation from the general counter-revolutionary or anti-Bolshevik movement. The military center of the White movement became the so-called. "Alekseevskaya organization", formed on the initiative of General of Infantry M.V. Alekseev in Rostov-on-Don. From the point of view of General Alekseev, it was necessary to achieve joint actions with the Cossacks of the South of Russia. For this purpose, the South-Eastern Union was created, which included the military (“Alekseevskaya organization”, renamed after the arrival of General Kornilov in the Volunteer Army on the Don) and civil authorities (elected representatives of the Don, Kuban, Terek and Astrakhan Cossack troops, as well as the “Union Highlanders of the Caucasus).

Formally, the Don Civil Council could be considered the first white government. It included generals Alekseev and Kornilov, Don ataman, cavalry general A.M. Kaledin, and from politicians: P.N. Milyukova, B.V. Savinkova, P.B. Struve. In their very first official statements (the so-called “Kornilov Constitution”, “Declaration on the Formation of the South-Eastern Union”, etc.) they proclaimed: an irreconcilable armed struggle against the Soviet regime and the convening of the All-Russian Constituent Assembly (on new elective grounds). The decision of the main economic and political issues was postponed until its convocation.

Unsuccessful battles in January-February 1918 on the Don led to the retreat of the Volunteer Army to the Kuban. Here the continuation of armed resistance was supposed. In the 1st Kuban ("Ice") campaign, during the unsuccessful assault on Yekaterinodar, General Kornilov died. As commander of the Volunteer Army, he was replaced by Lieutenant General A.I. Denikin. General Alekseev became the Supreme Leader of the Volunteer Army.

During the spring-summer of 1918, centers of counter-revolution were formed, many of which later became elements of the all-Russian White movement. In April-May, uprisings began on the Don. The Soviet power here was overthrown, elections of local authorities were held and the general from the cavalry P.N. Krasnov. In Moscow, Petrograd and Kyiv, coalition inter-party associations were created that provided political support for the White movement. The largest of them were the liberal "All-Russian National Center" (VNTs), in which the Cadets had the majority, the socialist "Union of the Revival of Russia" (SVR), as well as the "Council of the State Unification of Russia" (SGOR), from representatives of the Bureau of the Legislative Chambers of the Russian Empire , the Union of Commercial and Industrialists, the Holy Synod. The All-Russian Scientific Center enjoyed the greatest influence, and its leaders N.I. Astrov and M.M. Fedorov headed the Special Meeting under the Commander of the Volunteer Army (later the Special Meeting under the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the South of Russia (VSYUR)).

Separately, the issue of "intervention" should be considered. Of great importance for the formation of the White movement at this stage was the assistance of foreign states, the countries of the Entente. For them, after the conclusion of the Brest Peace, the war with the Bolsheviks was considered in the perspective of continuing the war with the countries of the Quadruple Union. Allied landings became the centers of the White movement in the North. In April, the Provisional Government of the Northern Region was formed in Arkhangelsk (N.V. Tchaikovsky, P.Yu. Zubov, Lieutenant General E.K. Miller). The landing of allied troops in Vladivostok in June and the performance of the Czechoslovak Corps in May-June was the beginning of the counter-revolution in the East of Russia. In the Southern Urals, back in November 1917, the Orenburg Cossacks, led by Ataman Major General A.I. Dutov. Several anti-Bolshevik government structures have developed in the East of Russia: the Ural Regional Government, the Provisional Government of Autonomous Siberia (later the Provisional Siberian (Regional) Government), the Provisional Ruler in the Far East, Lieutenant General D.L. Croat, as well as the Orenburg and Ural Cossack troops. In the second half of 1918, anti-Bolshevik uprisings broke out on the Terek, in Turkestan, where the Socialist-Revolutionary Transcaspian regional government was formed.

In September 1918, at the State Conference held in Ufa, the Provisional All-Russian Government and the Socialist Directory were elected (N.D. Avksentiev, N.I. Astrov, Lieutenant General V.G. Boldyrev, P.V. Vologodsky, N. .V. Tchaikovsky). The Ufa Directory developed a draft constitution that proclaimed the succession from the Provisional Government of 1917 and the dispersed Constituent Assembly.

The Supreme Ruler of the Russian State, Admiral A.V. Kolchak

November 18, 1918 in Omsk, there was a coup, during which the Directory was overthrown. The Council of Ministers of the Provisional All-Russian Government transferred power to Admiral A.V. Kolchak, proclaimed Supreme Ruler of the Russian State and Supreme Commander of the Russian Army and Navy.

Kolchak's coming to power meant the final establishment of a regime of one-man rule on an all-Russian scale, based on executive power structures (Council of Ministers headed by P.V. Vologodsky), with public representation (State Economic Conference in Siberia, Cossack troops). The second period in the history of the White movement began (from November 1918 to March 1920). The authority of the Supreme Ruler of the Russian State was recognized by General Denikin, Commander-in-Chief of the North-Western Front, General of Infantry N.N. Yudenich and the government of the Northern Region.

The structure of the White armies was established. The most numerous were the forces of the Eastern Front (Siberian (Lieutenant General R. Gaida), Western (Artillery General M.V. Khanzhin), Southern (Major General P.A. Belov) and Orenburg (Lieutenant General A.I. Dutov) of the army). In late 1918 - early 1919, the All-Union Socialist Youth League was formed under the command of General Denikin, the troops of the Northern Region (Lieutenant General E.K. Miller) and the North-Western Front (General Yudenich). Operationally, they were all subordinate to the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, Admiral Kolchak.

The coordination of political forces also continued. In November 1918, the Political Conference of the three leading political associations of Russia (SGOR, VNTs and SVR) was held in Iasi. After the proclamation of Admiral Kolchak as the Supreme Ruler, attempts were made to internationally recognize Russia at the Versailles Peace Conference, where the Russian Political Conference was created (chairman G.E. Lvov, N.V. Tchaikovsky, P.B. Struve, B.V. Savinkov, V. A. Maklakov, P. N. Milyukov).

In the spring-autumn of 1919, coordinated campaigns of the white fronts took place. In March-June, the Eastern Front advanced on the Volga and Kama in divergent directions, to join with the Northern Army. In July-October, two attacks on Petrograd by the North-Western Front were carried out (in May-July and in September-October), as well as a campaign against Moscow by the Armed Forces of the South of Russia (in July-November). But they all ended in failure.

By the autumn of 1919, the Entente countries had abandoned military support for the White movement (a phased withdrawal of foreign troops from all fronts began in the summer, and only Japanese units remained in the Far East until the autumn of 1922). However, the supply of weapons, the issuance of loans and contacts with white governments continued without their official recognition (with the exception of Yugoslavia).

The program of the White movement, which was finally formed during 1919, provided for "irreconcilable armed struggle against the Soviet power", after the liquidation of which, the convocation of the All-Russian National Constituent Assembly was supposed. The assembly was supposed to be elected by majoritarian districts on the basis of universal, equal, direct (in large cities) and two-stage (in rural areas) suffrage by secret ballot. The elections and activities of the All-Russian Constituent Assembly in 1917 were recognized as illegitimate, since they took place after the “Bolshevik coup”. The new Assembly was supposed to resolve the issue of the form of power in the country (monarchy or republic), elect the head of state, and approve projects of socio-political and economic reforms. Before the "victory over Bolshevism" and the convocation of the National Constituent Assembly, the supreme military and political power belonged to the Supreme Ruler of Russia. Reforms could only be developed, but not implemented (principle of "non-prejudice"). In order to strengthen regional power, prior to the convening of the All-Russian Assembly, it was allowed to convene local (regional) assemblies, designed to be legislative bodies under individual rulers.

The principle of “One, Indivisible Russia” was proclaimed in the national structure, which meant the recognition of the actual independence of only those parts of the former Russian Empire (Poland, Finland, the Baltic republics) that were recognized by the leading world powers. The rest of the state neoplasms on the territory of Russia (Ukraine, the Mountain Republic, the republics of the Caucasus) were considered illegitimate. For them, only "regional autonomy" was allowed. The Cossack troops retained the right to have their own authorities, armed formations, but within the limits of all-Russian structures.

In 1919, the development of all-Russian bills on agrarian and labor policy took place. The bills on agrarian policy were reduced to the recognition of peasant ownership of land, as well as "partial alienation of landowners' land in favor of the peasants for redemption" (Declarations on the land issue of the governments of Kolchak and Denikin (March 1919)). Trade unions were preserved, the right of workers to an 8-hour working day, to social insurance, to strikes (Declarations on the Labor Question (February, May 1919)). The property rights of former owners to urban real estate, industrial enterprises and banks were fully restored.

It was supposed to expand the rights of local self-government and public organizations, while political parties did not participate in the elections, they were replaced by inter-party and non-party associations (municipal elections in southern Russia in 1919, elections of the State Zemsky Conference in Siberia in the fall of 1919).

There was also a "white terror", which, however, did not have the character of a system. Criminal liability was introduced (up to and including the death penalty) for members of the Bolshevik Party, commissars, employees of the Cheka, as well as workers of the Soviet government and soldiers of the Red Army. Opponents of the Supreme Ruler, "independents" were also persecuted.

The White movement asserted the all-Russian symbolism (restoration of the tricolor national flag, the coat of arms of the Supreme Ruler of Russia, the anthem "Kol glorious is our Lord in Zion").

In foreign policy, "loyalty to allied obligations", "all agreements concluded by the Russian Empire and the Provisional Government", "full-fledged representation of Russia in all international organizations" (statements of the Supreme Ruler of Russia and the Russian Political Conference in Paris in the spring of 1919) were proclaimed.

The regimes of the White movement, in the face of defeats at the fronts, evolved towards "democratization". So, in December 1919 - March 1920. the rejection of the dictatorship, an alliance with the "public" was proclaimed. This was manifested in the reform of political power in southern Russia (the dissolution of the Special Conference and the formation of the South Russian government, responsible to the Supreme Circle of the Don, Kuban and Terek, de facto recognition of Georgia's independence). In Siberia, Kolchak proclaimed the convocation of the State Zemsky Conference, endowed with legislative powers. However, defeat could not be prevented. By March 1920, the Northwestern and Northern fronts were liquidated, and the Eastern and Southern fronts lost most of their controlled territory.

Activities of regional centers

The last period in the history of the Russian White movement (March 1920 - November 1922) was distinguished by the activities of regional centers on the outskirts of the former Russian Empire:

- in the Crimea (Ruler of the South of Russia - General Wrangel),

- in Transbaikalia (Ruler of the Eastern Outskirts - General Semenov),

- in the Far East (Ruler of the Amur Zemsky Territory - General Diterikhs).

These political regimes sought to move away from the policy of "non-decision". An example was the activity of the Government of the South of Russia, headed by General Wrangel and the former manager of agriculture A.V. Krivoshein in the Crimea, in the summer-autumn of 1920. Reforms began to be carried out, providing for the transfer of ownership of the "captured" landowners' land to the peasants, the creation of a peasant zemstvo. The autonomy of the Cossack regions, Ukraine and the North Caucasus was allowed.

The government of the Eastern outskirts of Russia, headed by Lieutenant General G.M. Semenov pursued a course of cooperation with the public, holding elections to the Regional People's Conference.

In Primorye in 1922, elections were held for the Amur Zemsky Sobor and the Ruler of the Amur Territory, Lieutenant General M.K. Diterichs. Here, for the first time in the White movement, the principle of restoration of the monarchy was proclaimed through the transfer of power of the Supreme Ruler of Russia to a representative of the Romanov dynasty. Attempts were made to coordinate actions with the rebel movements in Soviet Russia (Antonovshchina, Makhnovshchina, Kronstadt uprising). But these political regimes could no longer count on an all-Russian status, due to the extremely limited territory controlled by the remnants of the White armies.

The organized military-political confrontation between the Soviet authorities ceased in November 1922 - March 1923, after the occupation of Vladivostok by the Red Army and the defeat of the Yakut campaign of Lieutenant General A.N. Pepelyaev.

Since 1921, the political centers of the White movement moved to Abroad, where their final formation and political demarcation took place (“Russian National Committee”, “Conference of Ambassadors”, “Russian Council”, “Parliamentary Committee”, “Russian All-Military Union”). In Russia, the White movement ended.

The main participants of the White movement

Alekseev M.V. (1857-1918)

Wrangel P.N. (1878-1928)

Gaida R. (1892-1948)

Denikin A.I. (1872-1947)

Drozdovsky M.G. (1881-1919)

Kappel V.O. (1883-1920)

Keller F.A. (1857-1918)

Kolchak A.V. (1874-1920)

Kornilov L.G. (1870-1918)

Kutepov A.P. (1882-1930)

Lukomsky A.S. (1868-1939)

May-Maevsky V.Z. (1867-1920)

Miller E.-L. K. (1867-1937)

Nezhentsev M.O. (1886-1918)

Romanovsky I.P. (1877-1920)

Slashchev Ya.A. (1885-1929)

Ungern von Sternberg R.F. (1885-1921)

Yudenich N.N. (1862-1933)

Internal contradictions of the White movement

The White movement, uniting in its ranks representatives of various political movements and social structures, could not avoid internal contradictions.

There was a significant conflict between the military and civilian authorities. The ratio of military and civil power was often regulated by the "Regulations on the field command of the troops", where civil power was exercised by the governor-general, who was dependent on the military command. In the context of the mobility of the fronts, the fight against the insurgent movement in the rear, the military strove to carry out the functions of civilian leadership, ignoring the structures of local self-government, resolving political and economic problems by order (the actions of General Slashchov in the Crimea in February-March 1920, General Rodzianko on Northwestern Front in the spring of 1919, martial law on the line of the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1919, etc.). Lack of political experience, ignorance of the specifics of civil administration often led to serious mistakes, a fall in the authority of white rulers (the crisis of power of Admiral Kolchak in November-December 1919, General Denikin in January-March 1920).

The contradictions between the military and civil authorities reflected the contradictions between representatives of various political directions that were part of the White movement. The right-wingers (SGOR, monarchists) supported the principle of unlimited dictatorship, while the left-wingers (the Union of the Revival of Russia, Siberian regionalists) advocated "broad representation of the public" under military rulers. Of no small importance were the disagreements between the right and the left on land policy (on the conditions for the alienation of landowners' land), on the labor issue (on the possibility of trade unions participating in the management of enterprises), on local self-government (on the nature of the representation of socio-political organizations).

The implementation of the principle of "One, Indivisible Russia" caused conflicts not only between the White movement and state neoplasms on the territory of the former Russian Empire (Ukraine, the republics of the Caucasus), but also within the White movement itself. Serious tensions arose between the Cossack politicians, who were striving for maximum autonomy (up to state sovereignty) and the white governments (the conflict between Ataman Semenov and Admiral Kolchak, the conflict between General Denikin and the Kuban Rada).

There were also contradictions about the foreign policy "orientation". So, in 1918, many politicians of the White movement (P.N. Milyukov and the Kyiv group of cadets, the Moscow Right Center) spoke about the need for cooperation with Germany for the "liquidation of Soviet power." In 1919, the “pro-German orientation” distinguished the Civil Administration Council of the Western Volunteer Army Regiment. Bermondt-Avalov. The majority in the White movement advocated cooperation with the Entente countries as Russia's allies in the First World War.

The conflicts that arose between individual representatives of political structures (the leaders of the SGOR and the National Center - A.V. Krivoshein and N.I. Astrov), within the military command (between Admiral Kolchak and General Gaida, General Denikin and General Wrangel, did not contribute to the strength of the White movement, General Rodzianko and General Yudenich, etc.).

The above contradictions and conflicts, although not of an irreconcilable nature and did not lead to a split in the White movement, nevertheless violated its unity and played a significant role (along with military failures) in its defeat in the Civil War.

Significant problems for the white authorities arose due to the weakness of governance in the controlled territories. So, for example, in Ukraine, before the occupation by the troops of the All-Union Socialist Republic, it changed, during 1917-1919. four political regimes (the power of the Provisional Government, the Central Rada, Hetman P. Skoropadsky, the Ukrainian Soviet Republic), each of which sought to establish its own administrative apparatus. This made it difficult to promptly conduct mobilizations in the White Army, fight against the insurgent movement, implement the adopted laws, and explain to the population the political course of the White movement.