Crystal tableware. Rhinestone

Dishes and decorative items made of crystal leave few people indifferent, since such products look truly elegant. Many are interested in the question of what crystal is and how it is made.

Story

There is evidence that the British became the discoverers of such material as crystal, or lead glass. So, in 1615 in England, on the initiative of King Jacob the First, the use of wood in all areas of production was prohibited, with the exception of shipbuilding. This has led glass factory owners to replace wood with charcoal. Once, it was experimentally discovered that in a coal furnace, glass loses its color and becomes completely transparent. In the course of experiments on glass in 1676, master G. Ravenscroft discovered crystal - a durable material that is a combination of glass and lead oxide.

Crystal glasses and goblets

Crystal glass has the following properties:

• resistance to acids;
• increased density;
• high refractive index;
• melodic sound.

The density of crystal is on average 3.6x10³ kg/m³.

Crystal is difficult to manufacture, because the production of such a material requires a huge investment of time and effort. Crystal production consists of the following stages:

1. First, the charge is melted, which is a mixture of sand, lead oxide and potash (and all ingredients must be taken in strictly defined proportions).
2. The components are melted in a special furnace at temperatures above 1500 degrees Celsius.
3. After that, a product of the required shape is blown out of the crystal. Then it is sent to a special annealing furnace. Inside it, the product is processed under the influence of a gradually decreasing temperature (in 1.5 hours it drops from 700 to 50 degrees).
4. Valuable crystal is subject to expert evaluation, during which the presence of defects such as curvature, bubbles, cracks and more is checked.
5. The last stage in the manufacture of a crystal product is its decorative design - engraving, etc.

Peculiarities

To understand the properties of this material, it is necessary to understand such a concept as a variety of crystal. It depends on the composition of this material. There are such types of crystal:

1. Classic: this material contains 24% lead oxide. It is this composition of glass that contributes to the emergence of a specific melodic ringing. Classical is also considered a variety of crystal, in which part of the lead oxide reaches 30%.
2. Low lead: this crystal contains up to 24% lead oxide.
3. Barium: This crystal contains at least 18% barium oxide.
4. Bohemian: for the production of this type of crystal, not lead and barium are used, but glass, consisting of calcium and potassium.

Rhinestone

Many people are interested in the question of whether crystal is harmful, because it contains lead, a chemical element that is known for its properties that threaten human health. In fact, any kind of crystal is considered safe, because lead, which reacts with oxide, loses its properties dangerous to humans.

Crystal products, especially if it is an elite material, are characterized by high cost, in particular when it comes to handmade crystal. Elite crystal is produced in countries such as the Czech Republic, Russia and Germany.

Studying the issue of crystal, you can find information about rock crystal. What is this material and is it used in the manufacture of dishes and decor items? It should be said right away that rock crystal is not a variety of crystal obtained in industrial production, but transparent quartz, which can be found in river sediments, in particular, in pebbles. Rock crystal is used in the jewelry industry as a raw material for the manufacture of decorative inserts in precious jewelry.

The main difficulty that arises in the process of choosing and buying crystal products is that this material in many ways resembles ordinary glass. In order to distinguish one material from another and not pay a fabulous amount of money for glass, you should be aware of the differences between glass and crystal:

• crystal is not easy to break;
• if bubbles are visualized when viewing the material through a magnifying glass, then this indicates that you have to deal with glass;
• glass, unlike crystal, has good thermal conductivity, so it heats up in seconds from the heat of human hands;
• if you look at objects through glass, they will appear slightly enlarged.

To buy real crystal, and not its fake, preference should be given to large specialized stores.

Crystal tableware was an indicator of luxury in all previous eras. During the Middle Ages, rich people decorated their tables with crystal goblets and bowls. In the era of the USSR, all self-respecting housewives acquired crystal dishes. Not a single dinner party was complete without a crystal glass, crystal vase or bowl shining in the light. In addition, crystal was considered an ideal option for investing material resources.

Now, of course, the situation has changed a lot. Crystal tableware has lost its former importance and honor among the population. In addition, crystal has many rivals from modern types of glass. But he still enjoys well-deserved recognition at ceremonial receptions and social events, and the most sophisticated people use crystal glasses at home for no reason, when they just want to create an atmosphere of majesty and enchantment.

Crystal tableware has significant aesthetic advantages even over modern dishes made from the most unusual glass. Crystal has been winning the hearts of consumers for several centuries in a row thanks to its amazing transparency, shiny surface, ability to refract light and convey the smallest shades of color in drinks. The beauty of crystal tableware allows it to remain in demand in the 21st century.

Crystal properties

Crystal- this is one of the varieties of glass, which differs from other types in the presence of oxides of silver, barium, zinc or lead. Crystal is white glass containing at least 16% oxides of these metals. If the content of barium, lead, silver does not reach this norm, the glass is regarded as crystal.

The properties of crystal that distinguish it from other types of glass are increased density, heaviness even in the presence of thin walls of dishes, extraordinary transparency, brilliance, light refraction with a rainbow effect, low thermal stability, bright melodic ringing, apparent fragility and unique beauty.

The quality of crystal glassware is necessarily checked against the requirements of GOST 30407-96.

A WARNING: DO NOT STORE FOOD AND DRINKS IN CRYSTAL VESSELS FOR LONG TIME: THE HEAVY METAL LEAD CAN PENETRATE INTO THE PRODUCTS AND THEN INTO YOUR BODY!

Crystal types

1. The percentage of lead oxide affects the quality of the crystal. According to the State Standard (GOST 24315-80), the material,

• containing at least 10% lead, barium or zinc is recognized as crystal glass;
• containing from 18 to 24% lead oxide - is called low-lead crystal;
• having in its composition from 24 to 30% of lead oxides - it is considered expensive lead crystal;
• containing more than 30% metal oxide - elite high-lead crystal.

2. According to the European classification, the material,

• containing from 1 to 15% lead oxide, is crystallin;
• from 16 to 23% - crystal;
• from 24 to 30% - lead crystal.

• rock crystal - quartz (natural crystal) that does not contain any impurities;
• lead crystal - containing lead oxide;
• barium crystal - including barium oxides;
• Bohemian crystal - containing potassium-calcium glass instead of lead or barium oxides.

History of crystal

Crystal was invented by the Englishman George Ravenscroft in the 17th century. First, the developer of a new type of glass received a patent for the production of crystal, and only in 1976 was the first production of the so-called "diamond glass" - crystal known to us. Before crystal glass, refractory glass containing silicon and wood ash was popular. Georg Ravenscroft replaced silicon with pure sand and introduced lead to start a chemical reaction - this is how crystal was born.

The glass invented by the Englishman acquired its final name for its amazing resemblance to quartz (rock crystal).

But the active production of "diamond glass" was not started by England at all, but by France, which appreciates everything beautiful. The French manufactory "Vonesh-Bakkara", which made crystal the property of the whole world, is still functioning.

In our country, the most popular souvenirs and dishes made of crystal, produced in the city with the speaking name Gus-Khrustalny. Products have repeatedly won leadership positions and the highest awards at international exhibitions. Among the well-known manufacturers of crystal in Russia, we will name and »

Crystal tableware produced by the Czech Republic, Germany, Romania, Bulgaria and Austria has achieved worldwide recognition. By the way, today's fashionable smooth uncut crystal is produced in Bulgaria.

Crystal tableware production

Crystal tableware can be produced by four methods: blowing, pressing, press blowing or centrifugal casting. Blowing is the most reliable method, since as a result of it a whole, monolithic product is formed, and not parts, which then still need to be connected.

Blowing can also be different: mechanized, vacuum blown, manual and free. The most valuable souvenirs and crockery made of crystal are obtained by hand blowing, that is, with the help of a glass blowing tube. The free blowing method (Guten technique) is the creation of a crystal product without a distinct shape. Products obtained by this method are always unique.

All blown crystal tableware and souvenirs are characterized by thin walls, special transparency, unusual and unique shapes.

Because crystal is inherently a very soft material, all crystal glassware is typically diamond-cut. First, the products are processed using rotating circles of artificial diamond, then they are polished with acids.

There are four known ways of processing crystal glasses, vases and souvenirs: engraving, cutting, polishing, carving.

Nowadays, there is a special demand colored crystal. Various additives are used to obtain colored crystal tableware during its production: cadmium or gold compounds - to obtain a red tint; silicon - to obtain pink crystal; cobalt - for blue; copper oxide - for the acquisition of green crystal; manganese oxides - for violet.

Colored crystal is also produced by Russian factories, but so far they cannot compete with the crystal workshops of the city of Sevres in France. It produces the famous pearl gray, amethyst and blue crystal.

Currently, crystal decoration began to be used special types of decoration. The most common of these is gold jewelry. For this, craftsmen use gold foil, which is fused into the glass, or coated on the outside. Other craftsmen paint crystal by hand, which, by the way, is cheaper. Another way to decorate is etching(satin). This is the name of the hydrofluoric acid treatment technique, which allows you to make the crunch the most brilliant. There is also the opposite way of decoration - matting, when the crystal is treated with sharp-grained sand.

Crystal glassware assortment

The assortment of glassware made of crystal is quite diverse. All kinds of vases and sockets, jugs with lids, candy and fruit bowls, vases for cakes and cakes, bowls with legs, dishes, sugar bowls, compote bowls, herring bowls, salad bowls, spice devices, ashtrays, napkin holders, etc. are mainly made from this material. .

No celebration is complete without a beautiful table setting with elegant glasses. If in Soviet times, crystal and glassware was considered in short supply, now everyone can afford it. However, today crystal is not as popular as it used to be, and more durable and lighter utensils have come in its place. What is it connected with? And do we know everything about noble crystal?

Crystal is

Crystal is a type of glass. Crystal can also be called pure high-quality glass. Modern glassmaking is more than 5 thousand years old, and the production technology has remained the same and has not undergone any special changes. Any alcoholic drink - wine or champagne - acquires a completely different "sound" when it is filled with a crystal glass.

The history of the emergence of crystal begins in the 17th century in England. Here, lead was added to the composition of the glass, which gave the crystal strength and brilliance. The walls of the vessel had a high refractive index of light, and therefore it was possible to observe all the colors of the rainbow. Due to its strength, crystal is easy to cut. Usually all raw materials are cooked at a temperature of 1500 degrees Celsius. After the liquid form, the glass is processed manually or with the help of special machines.

Ordinary glass is obtained by combining oxides of various metals with quartz. The main constituent is silicon dioxide, which is obtained from quartz sand. In the past, either chalk or lime was also added to keep the glass thin and have a better luster. Now this technology is not used or in rare cases.

Traditionally, crunch is treated with a diamond facet, as the material is softer and more amenable to change. The decoration method is also used - engraving, and the resulting pattern cannot be polished. Any applied pattern does not affect the taste of alcohol in any way.

Crystal types

1. Lead. The composition contains lead oxide up to 36%. This type of crystal appeared about 350 years ago in London. It has undeniable advantages: it cannot be destroyed by acidic liquids or those containing alkali or alcohol, it is absolutely safe for health and does not emit harmful substances. It is cooked at a temperature of 1500 degrees.
2. Mountain. The most natural quartz, which was found high in the mountains and at first was taken for petrified ice. Rock crystal is distinguished by its brilliance, strength, transparency and attractive appearance. No wonder now this type of noble stone is used for the manufacture of lenses, jewelry and expensive utensils. There is also the so-called smoky crystal or Rauchtopaz, which has gray-brown hues. Morion- An interesting type of black crystal.
3. Barium. In its composition and qualities it resembles lead, only here instead of lead - barium.
4. Bohemian. Crystal that does not contain lead and is a potassium-calcium glass.

What gives color?

Crystal can be both transparent and colored. He gets his tint color with the help of special additives in his composition. For example, blue is obtained by adding cobalt, red - cadmium or gold, if you add silicon, you get pink crystal, if iron - yellow or bluish-green, copper oxide and manganese oxides give purple and green hues. When pure manganese is added, we get a bright yellow color, grassy green with chromium, yellow-green with uranium.

Some types of decoration are used to decorate crystal. This is first of all decoration with gold(The most common). Foil is taken and melted inside the glass or coated on the outside. An easier and more budgetary way is painting with gold oxide. The second way to decorate is etching(satin). Either the entire surface or only the pattern is subjected to etching. The technique is based on the treatment with hydrofluoric acid, which makes the glass more shiny. For lovers of a matte surface, a matting technique is used using sharp-grained sand.

Care and Precautions

Like any fragile glassware, crystal glasses require care. In order not to lose shine and the color always remains so bright, you need to follow some tips:

• For light soiling, a regular dish detergent and a soft, lint-free cloth will do.
• If you add a couple of drops of vinegar or alcohol to the water and wipe the crystal with this solution, it will sparkle like new again. It is recommended to wipe with a velveteen or velvet cloth. They won't leave streaks.
• Crystal, which has not been removed from the sideboard for a long time and has become covered with a thick layer of dust, must be put into the water where the potatoes were previously boiled. Wipe dry afterwards.
• Cloudy stains will help remove the solution of salt and vinegar. This applies primarily to crystal vases, where there were flowers.
• Remember! To prevent the crystal from becoming cloudy, do not wash it in hot water.
• Wine stains can be removed by pouring some warm, soapy water into the decanter. Add a little soda and let it brew. Then shake well and rinse.
• To avoid smudges on the dishes, they are not left to dry, but carefully wiped with a napkin or towel.

History of crystal

The Greek word "krystallos" ("crystal") called a type of glass, characterized by special transparency and high quality workmanship. For a long time, in the minds of most Russians, the concept of "crystal" was associated with the Czech Republic. And this is no coincidence. It was the Czech Republic that has long been famous for its crystal. And the craft secrets and traditions of the "glass" business have survived to this day almost unchanged.

Glass production is one of the most ancient and significant inventions of mankind. It is known that the "age" of the oldest glass archaeological find is about 5 thousand years. The first glass workshops on the territory of present-day Bohemia and neighboring Moravia appeared in Celtic settlements already in the 1st century BC. e.

Villages and cities of glassmakers were usually built in picturesque places at the foot of wooded mountains. The recipes for making glass were kept secret by the craftsmen, and for giving out a secret they could even be subjected to the death penalty.

Finished products were sent to all parts of the world. Very often, glass merchants were among the first to penetrate into distant lands, establishing economic, social and political contacts with new countries. At the same time, their travels were often associated with danger: trading carts were a tempting object for the profit of various kinds of robbers.

In the Middle Ages, the Czech Republic was already famous for its glass products, their original shapes, ornaments and colors. Starting from the 16th century, Czech craftsmen began to pay special attention to the production of absolutely transparent glass.

At the turn of the 16th - 17th centuries, at a time when Prague was the center of European science and art, glass objects were first decorated with engraving in the Czech Republic. And at the end of the 17th - beginning of the 18th century, Czech glassmakers were already out of competition in the European markets.

The original art of cutting crystal originated in the Czech Republic during the Baroque era. The development of this technique contributed to the fact that in the 20s. In the 18th century, the first factory was built here, specializing in the production of faceted chandeliers and pendant chandeliers.

Since its introduction to the market, these products have earned worldwide recognition. So, by decree of the French king Louis XIV, palaces in Versailles and Fontaneblo were decorated with Czech chandeliers. The example of the French court was followed by other monarchs - the Turkish Sultan Osman III and the Russian Empress Elizabeth.

It was in the Czech Republic that the first professional school of glassmaking was opened, which soon became known almost all over the world. In this educational institution, they tried to preserve the traditions of past generations and pass them on to the “recruits” of artisans.

The twentieth century brought significant changes to the glass industry: the glass industry was divided into two branches - labor-intensive craft and serial machine.

Of course, crystal products (including lamps and chandeliers), which are exhibited in the trading floors of modern stores, for the most part, belong to the second direction - more accessible, but no less interesting.

Crystal types

There are the following types of crystal:

• - it is natural quartz;
• lead crystal- glass containing lead oxide;
• barium crystal- crystal, in which barium is used instead of lead;
• bohemian crystal- crystal, in which potassium-calcium glass is used instead of lead and barium.

Crystal properties

The "vocal" abilities of crystal, its transparency, strength, weight, brilliance and other properties depend on the percentage of lead oxide.

Gusev crystal is brewed with lead oxide content strictly equal to 24%, which corresponds to amazing optical properties and high density. Thanks to this, we can observe the multi-color play of light in the facets, the brilliance of surfaces and hear a wonderful melodic ringing.

Improving, the technology for the production of crystal from silicon sand began to include the addition of, in addition to lead oxide, also boric acid, arsenic and antimony compounds.

To create colored crystal, various additives are used: cobalt gives pure blue tones, for red color - cadmium or gold compounds are added, for pink - silicon. Copper oxide makes crystal green, and manganese oxides give exquisite purple color.

In tsarist times, at the Gusevsky factory, crystal dishes and crystal vases were also dyed with colloidal gold and uranium oxides.

These were quite expensive, but also the most beautiful pieces of art.

Usually a crystal product is decorated with engraving - a shallow matte pattern, cutting - a wide polished edge, carving - deep grooves, at the intersection of which a grid appears (the so-called "diamond edge"), polishing.

After grinding, the edges acquire a special shine. Faceted crystal, refracting light, creates bright iridescent reflections.

Crystal production

To get crystal, you need to melt the mixture from which crystal is made. The mixture is a mixture of sand, potash and lead oxide, just its presence is the main difference between crystal and ordinary glass.

The feedstock is melted in furnaces at a huge temperature of over 1500 degrees Celsius. The molten mass cools very quickly. To speed up the process, several people are involved in one product at once.

At the furnace master blowers, typesetters and pressers work. Blowers are armed with special tubes with a rubber pear. A drop of red-hot crystal is taken at one end of the glass blowing tube and the product is blown into a mold with the help of a rubber bulb. The master compositor has a type-setting pipe. With its help, he collects the required amount of glass mass from the furnace and brings it to the master presser, who controls the mold.

After the product is blown and given the required shape, it enters the furnace for annealing. Annealing is designed for more uniform cooling of the crystal. In the annealing furnace, the temperature drops from 700 degrees to 40 - 50 degrees within 1.5 hours.

After that, the product passes the first quality control: are there any large bubbles, stones, leg curvature; measure the thickness of the glass layer.

Smooth products are decorated with a diamond face. To begin with, marking is applied to the product, after marking the product is placed on the conveyor and goes from master to master. The process of applying a diamond edge begins with the largest abrasive wheel, and ends with the smallest. To prevent glass dust from entering the respiratory tract, water is supplied to the abrasive wheels.

After application, the diamond edge becomes matte. To obtain a transparent edge, the product is subjected to chemical polishing in a mixture of hydrofluoric and sulfuric acids. The acid corrodes and polishes the glass. Next, the product is thoroughly washed, and, if necessary, the edges are applied, which should remain matte. Finally, the product is again checked, labeled and packaged.

Past, present and future of crystal

For nearly three centuries, crystal has continued to be one of the most favored materials for artists. And all because of the unique optical qualities of crystal. It is not as easy to work with this stone as it might seem at first glance. The glassblower gains precious experience, which gives him the opportunity to create real masterpieces, works of art, only after many years of painstaking work. And not everyone is given to become such a master. To do this, you must have the talent of an artist and the ability to feel crystal.

Crystal in Russia has always been appreciated and loved. For several generations, it remained a measure of luxury and a very profitable investment. Crystal really never loses either in popularity or in price.

Information sources:

• gus-hrustal.ru - all about crystal;
• crystalno.ru - how crystal products are made;
• riocatalog.ru - crystal history, history of crystal.

Rock crystal is pure silicon oxide or, as it is also called, a modification of silica.

Rock crystal has a huge variety, which is associated with a wide variety of impurities. Many of them are highly valued in jewelry.

Amethyst is a type of rock crystal, blue, purple and violet-red colors, which depend on the content of iron ions.

Citrine stone has amazing beauty. Its yellow color is associated with impurities of iron ions and complex compounds of aluminum and lithium.

Rauchtopaz, oddly enough, has absolutely nothing to do with topaz, but is a variety of quartz. This mineral is better known as smoky crystal. Indeed, the uneven coloring of transparent crystals in brown and brown shades gives the effect of smoke enclosed within the stone.

Morin is a variety that has a deep black color. In the Urals, geologists jokingly called this stone "gypsy" or "tar" precisely because of its characteristic color.

An interesting visual effect has a stone with an equally interesting name - hairy. Long strands of rutile and actinolite, located throughout the mass of crystal, give the mineral a golden shimmer. The name was given to the stone by the similarity of the structure with light curls.

Rock crystal of high purity and correct, from the point of view of jewelers, mineralogists, form is called marmarosh diamond. They are extremely rare, but can be used in jewelry without cutting precisely because of their shape.

In nature, rock crystals are found not only in the form of large and not very intergrowths. The mineral also occurs as a single crystal. The intergrowths of the mineral are called brushes, outwardly they resemble the teeth of a comb on one matrix. It is extremely rare to find polished pebbles in reservoirs near deposits.

In the section, natural crystal has the shape of a hexagon, and on the crystal itself one can distinguish transverse stripes that remain in the process of growth. Ideal hexagons with pointed tops are almost never found in nature.

The size of the mined crystals ranges from 2 to 4 cm diagonally in cross section.

On the Mohs scale, the mineral has a hardness of 7.0.

Despite the fact that outwardly rock crystal is very similar to glass, it is not difficult to distinguish a fake. Glass, unlike crystal, reflects UV rays.

Since ancient times, crystal has been famous as a raw material for the manufacture of vessels and utensils. In addition, seals and decorations were often made from it.

An interesting use was for round crystal balls, which the noble Romans used to cool their hands in hot weather. Crystals were also used in ritual ceremonies. For example, as carriers for fire, which kindled fires for sacrifices.

In Asian countries, almost perfect crystal balls are often found during archaeological excavations.

The Kremlin tsars also highly revered crystal. Many crystal dishes of Peter I have survived to this day, but the most famous is considered a crystal samovar made of a single crystal.

In Russia, until the 19th century, many small things were made of crystal, namely snuff boxes, seals, church items, and even buttons.

In the natural environment, the mineral is often found in mountain ranges.

Both single crystals are mined, and intergrowths are mined in the Crimea, the Carpathians, the Alps, and the Urals. The island of Madagascar is also famous for its crystal. Significant deposits are located in Brazil and China. Some of the purest splices are mined in Yakutia.

Despite the natural luster, jewelers polish the stone to emphasize and enhance the glassy luster.

Often they decorate pendants, pendants, earrings with crystal, but I insert this mineral into rings much less often.

Astrologers consider crystal a universal stone. That is what makes it a great gift.

But still, rock crystal is considered an ideal talisman for Gemini, Virgo and Aquarius.

In Greek mythology, it is believed that if a person visits the temple, then the patron god of the temple will not be able to refuse the visitor's request.

In Europe, crystal was known as "Arabian" or "Bohemian diamond".

The Japanese believed that crystal crystals were the frozen breath of a dragon.

One of the most ancient religions in the world - Zoroastrianism - considered rock crystal as an integral part of the sky.

In the modern world, crystal is associated with modesty, purity and innocence.

Crystal is quite chemically inert. The structure and purity cannot be affected by the action of sunlight or chemicals.

If necessary, you can clean the product with crystal with a soft brush in solutions of any powders and soaps. The main thing is to thoroughly wash off soap residues that can form stains on the surface of the stone.

The only rule: protect the stone from high temperatures, which can cause cracks not only on the surface, but also inside the mineral.