For what purpose Yesenin uses obsolete words. The use of obsolete words in works of art. Al, gold, raspberry, silk
4th grade
Literary reading
Lesson Objectives:
1. Organize work to create a dictionary of obsolete words that are found in S.A. Yesenin.
2. Create conditions for the formation of motivation for further study of S.A. Yesenin.
Tasks:
- Be able to find obsolete words in the poems of S.A. Yesenin.
- Be able to find the meaning of obsolete words in reference literature, on the Internet.
- To form a cognitive interest in the work of S.A. Yesenin.
Equipment :
Explanatory dictionaries; laptops (3 pcs.);
Excerpts from poems by S.A. Yesenin;
Pictures (on slides) depicting objects whose names are obsolete;
Badges for group work;
Museum items: shawl, kosnik, wattle, tow, spindle, tong; ---picture depicting a sled; cards with names for museum items;
Colored ribbons: red, green, white, presentation.
"Obsolete words in the work of S.A. Yesenin"
During the classes
1. Organizational moment(3 min)
Hello dear friends. Today I brought museum exhibits with me to the lesson of literary reading. I hope you will be interested and you will gain new knowledge. Let's turn to each other, smile, give a good mood and wish good luck.
Look out the window. What a wonderful place to be around. Winter is in full swing. This is the favorite time of the year for many. Children always look forward to the arrival of winter. After all, it is in winter that you can ski, play snowballs, make snow fortresses. I involuntarily remembered the lines:
Backyard on a winter evening
rollicking crowd
On snowdrifts, on hillocks
We're going, we're going home.
The sleds are disgusting,
And we sit in two rows
Listen to grandmother's tales
About Ivan - a fool.
And you familiar is this a poem?
What do you know about Yesenin?
2015 marks the 120th anniversary of his birth.
Are all the words to you understood? Are there words in the poem that we do not use in our speech?
- Such obsolete words are called obsolete.
- What is the topic of our lesson?
The topic of our lesson is "Obsolete words in the work of S.A. Yesenin."
3. -What do we do when the meaning of the word is unknown when it is not clear what is being said? ( Turning to the dictionary, search on the Internet).
I want to draw your attention to the word BACKYARDS.
What an interesting word. What do you think backyards are?
Let us turn to a page from the explanatory dictionary and find the interpretation of the word BACKYARD.
Backyards - (obsolete) Part of the peasant yard behind the house with outbuildings adjacent to it, as well as a place behind the yard, behind the peasant estate itself.
- I chose a picture for you so that you can understand the interpretation of the word.
See how convenient it is when there is both an interpretation of the word and a picture. I wish all dictionaries were like this!
- Do you want to create your own dictionary?
What is the goal of the lesson?
- Create a dictionary of obsolete words that are found in S. Yesenin's poems.
Well done, this will be the goal of our lesson.
5. Let's make the first page of the dictionary together and find out what sled.
Dictionary will help us Russian language S. I. Ozhegov .
sled - small wooden hand sledges.
6. -Look what page of the dictionary we got.
In Yesenin's poems often you can find other obsolete words. And we will continue to build our vocabulary.
You will now work in groups.
7. Let's remember group rules.
Everyone is working towards a common goal.
One speaks, others listen.
Express your disagreement politely.
If you don't understand, ask again.
Let's distribute the roles and start working
The group should have a leader - the one who manages the work, distributes roles, interpreter- looking for an interpretation of the word, painter- designer- designing the dictionary page, guide- the person who will present your page . (Badges attached)
Do not forget signal about the end of work. Show it.
(Tell about how to signal when work is done.)
-Remember what the result should be for each group.(make a dictionary page).
8. -Each group has a table on the table little basket. There lies an excerpt from a poem with which you need to work.
Get them out. Read and look for obsolete words.
1 gr. At wattle fence overgrown nettle
Dressed in bright mother-of-pearl
And, swaying, he whispers playfully:
"Good morning!" "Good morning!"
The old women are smiling, the old men are squatting. Girlfriends look with envy At silk braids."Dancer"
2 gr. mother with grips won't get along
bending low,
old cat k mahotke sneaking
For fresh milk. "In the hut"
3 gr. The moon, probably
The dogs ate
Can't be seen in the sky.
Pulling thread from tows,
With spindle
The mother is talking. "Blizzard"
-Let's check.
(Children read the words, the interpretation of the meanings of which will be sought)
Well done, you are right to find obsolete words. Now you can start building the dictionary.
- Group leaders will come to me and get all the necessary materials.
Remind me what should be on the page?
(Slide showing how to make a dictionary)
- An outdated word.
- Word interpretation.
- Picture.
- An excerpt from a poem by S.A. Yesenin.
You can highlight the found words. You have 6 minutes. (On the desks there are explanatory dictionaries, dictionary entries, laptops with the ability to access the Internet»
9. Page design work dictionary is finished.
Group guides will present us the results of their work and find these items among the exhibits. Look at them carefully. They are the main characters of your pages. From them we will make museum exposition.
10. Protection of pages. 1 representative-guide from the group comes out with a page, reads the interpretation, finds this object and begins to compose the exposition. Etc.
The exposition is set up.
11. The result of the lesson.
Our lesson is coming to an end . Let's remember what goal we set at the beginning of the lesson?
Compile a dictionary.
Has the goal been achieved? -Yes.
You and I not only compiled a dictionary, but also designed an exposition for the museum.
You liked the activity. Did you learn something new?
I was interested in you. Thank you for your work. And I will give you a dictionary. It doesn't have the last page. You can continue to compose it at home and in the classroom.
12. Reflection. According to the old Russian custom, I suggest you tie a knot as a keepsake. I have multi-colored ribbons.
If the lesson was interesting, and you discovered new knowledge, tie a red ribbon on the wattle fence.
If you still have questions, then tie a green ribbon.
If the work left you indifferent, then tie a white ribbon.
(You can ask to continue the phrase: “I tied a red ribbon because ...” or “In class, I didn’t learn ..., so I tied a green ribbon.”
What a beautiful wattle we got. I thank you all for your work.
The use of obsolete words in works of art
Obsolete words are used in works of art that tell about the past. Historicisms and archaisms help the writer create the flavor of the era he is talking about. To stylize the past, obsolete words were widely used, for example, by A.S. Pushkin in the novel "Arap of Peter the Great", A.K. Tolstoy in the novel "Peter the Great", A. Chapygin in the novel "Stepan Razin" and other writers.
Sometimes obsolete words in works of art are used to create mockery, irony. Saltykov-Shchedrin was a master of using archaisms for such purposes. It is precisely this use of them (along with the goals of recreating the chronicle style) that we observe, for example, in the “History of a City”. The humorous effect is created by including historicisms or archaisms (especially highly solemn ones) in a context where modern common vocabulary prevails.
Literary works live a long life, so in them we can meet obsolete words that have gone out of use both before they were written (they serve the writer to create the color of the past) and after they were written. For example, A.S. Pushkin, describing the events of the second half of the 18th century in the story "The Captain's Daughter", used words that were outdated in his time to create the color of the time prime minister- Major, stirrup, fortecia, corporal, soul jacket. Common in the first third of the 19th century. the words captain, recruit, tavern, coachman, second and others used in this story are now obsolete.
Another function of obsolete words in modern texts is to give speech a high, poetic sound (mainly archaisms play this role). True, in modern poetic (and even more so prose) speech, archaisms are quite rare in this function. The last Russian poet who widely used high archaisms was A. Blok: And in the glow of it - yours is insane youth; Let her hide from valley grief drowned in roses wall. Quite frequent are high archaisms in the poems of S. Yesenin: With a light stroke of white fingers the secrets of years I cut the water; I want to be lad light.
Modern poets have high archaisms - a relatively rare phenomenon - eyes, forehead and a few others:
The thread of life is getting shorter
Look into your eyes at night
Wise Asia eyes,
Like a steppe storm (Meadow.).
About two types of obsolete words within the same literary and artistic context, excerpts from Pushkin's work "Boris Godunov" give an idea:
1) - Come,
You, Trubetskoy, and you, Basmanov: help
Needed by my diligent governors.
Chernigov was besieged by the rebel.
save hail and citizens.
2) Yes sir clerk, in orders gray-haired,
Calmly sees on the right and the guilty,
Good and evil listening indifferently,
Not knowing no pity, no anger.
3) How good! Here is the sweet fruit of learning!
How can you see from the clouds
Everything kingdom suddenly: borders, g glad, rivers.
In the above passages, we observe among the obsolete words and historicisms - governor, clerk, order(meaning institution) kingdom(meaning the state headed by the king), and archaisms - help(help), hail, citizens(residents of the city) mature(watch), heed(hear), know(know), suddenly(meaning "immediately"). They were used by Pushkin in a tragedy on a historical theme.
In their origin, both archaisms and historicisms can be very diverse. Among them there are also native Russian words (lzya, so that, this, violence, semo - here, flash - alarm, breeder - instigator, etc.), and Old Slavonic (smooth, kiss, shrine, verb - word, broadcast, etc. .), and borrowed from other languages (abshid - resignation, voyage - travel, sikurs - help, nature - nature, politeness - politeness, aksamit - velvet, etc.).
Let us illustrate all of the above about obsolete words (historicisms and archaisms) using the story of A.S. Pushkin "The Bronze Horseman".
Nurullaev Rubin and Duysenova Dinara.
Each person has his own small homeland - the place where we were born, where our ancestors lived, where our roots are. For some it is a big city, for others it is a small village, for others it is a small village. Unfortunately, now these roots are thoroughly forgotten, and yet this is a whole cultural "stratum" of past generations. "Without knowledge of the past, there is no present." Recently, however, interest in the past has begun to awaken. But history is relentless. Nowadays, small settlements that sometimes existed for 300-400 years are disappearing. Documents, home archives, obsolete words that have acquired a new meaning over time are dying. For example: belly - farm animal, belly - part of the body. Lesson - damage, evil eye, a lesson at school. And the new generation knows them under a new meaning. Some words have multiple meanings. For example: Pechera is a cave, Pechera is a river. Ore is blood, ore is a mineral. This could be due to the large number of peoples and their subsequent displacement. And with all this, the gap between the past and the future deepens. It is extremely difficult to trace this gap. The current generation of schoolchildren and their grandparents use different colloquial speech.
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Regional scientific and practical conference "Step into the future"
Research work in the Russian language
on this topic
"The use of obsolete words in everyday life"
The work was done by students of grade 10
MKOU "Osypnobugorskaya secondary school"
Privolzhsky district, with. Scree Hillock
Nurullaev Rubin and
Duisenova Dinara.
Scientific adviser: Kirichenko
Svetlana Georgievna,
teacher of Russian language and literature
2013
Routing
Topic of scientific work - "The use of obsolete words in everyday life"
School: MKOU "Osypnobugorskaya secondary school"
Information about scientific supervisors - Kirichenko Svetlana Georgievna
Information about the submitted work:
Type of work - abstract-research
The presence in the introduction of the object, subject, goals, objectives of the study - +
Availability of a work plan - +
Number of sources in the bibliographic list -
Preliminary approbation of work - school conference
The period of the study - October-January
Scientific adviser: Kirichenko S.G.
Head of the institution: Khalmetova G.A.
Research Plan
item number | Timing | Type of work |
September | Work on choosing a topic |
|
October | Collection of information on the chosen topic |
|
november | Processing of collected information |
|
December- January | Working on an experiment. |
|
February | Writing a paper, creating a presentation, participating in a school conference. |
|
March | Summing up the work. |
- Research plan. page 3
- Introduction. page 5
- Purpose of work page 5
- Hypothesis.p. 5
- Relevance and significance of the work.p. 5
- Tasks p.5
- Introduction. page 6.
- Chapter I "Historical background of the Privolzhsky region". page 6.
Chapter II "Why are there so many different languages?" page 7.
- Chapter II "Obsolete words". page 8.
- Sociological survey. p11
- Knowledge of obsolete words. Page 12
- The use of words, taking into account different age categories. 13
- The dependence of the use of words, taking into account age characteristics. fifteen
- Lists of people by recognition category.p. 16
- .List of words with other meanings.p. 17
- Competition "The best connoisseur of obsolete words" p. 19
- Conclusion. page 20
- Bibliography. page 21
- Application.page 22
Introduction
Each person has his own small homeland - the place where we were born, where our ancestors lived, where our roots are. For some it is a big city, for others it is a small village, for others it is a small village. Unfortunately, now these roots are thoroughly forgotten, and yet this is a whole cultural "stratum" of past generations. "Without knowledge of the past, there is no present." Recently, however, interest in the past has begun to awaken. But history is relentless. Nowadays, small settlements that sometimes existed for 300-400 years are disappearing. Documents, home archives, obsolete words that have acquired a new meaning over time are dying. For example: belly - farm animal, belly - part of the body. Lesson - damage, evil eye, a lesson at school. And the new generation knows them under a new meaning. Some words have multiple meanings. For example: Pechera is a cave, Pechera is a river. Ore is blood, ore is a mineral. This could be due to the large number of peoples and their subsequent displacement. And with all this, the gap between the past and the future deepens. It is extremely difficult to trace this gap. The current generation of schoolchildren and their grandparents use different colloquial speech.
Objective: Learn how obsolete words are used in everyday life.
Hypothesis: We assumed that the words are used, but less every year.
Relevance and significance of the work:Without knowledge of the past, there is no present.
Novelty of work: preservation of obsolete words as history, memory of their small homeland.
Tasks: 1) Study the literature on the topic.
2) Conduct a sociological survey.
3) Find out the degree of use of words in the form of graphs and
Tables.
Introduction. Historical background of the Privolzhsky region
Privolzhsky district - municipality in the southeastern partAstrakhan regionRussia.
Privolzhsky district is located in the southeastern partAstrakhan regionin the delta of the Volga River and borders in the north withNarimanovskiy and Krasnoyarsk districts, in the east with Volodarsky districtand city areaAstrakhan. The area of the district is 840.9 km².
On the basis of the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR "On the formation of the Volga region in the Astrakhan region" datedThe 20th of October1980- Privolzhsky district was formed in the Astrakhan region, with the center in the villageNachalovo, due to part of the territoryNarimanov districtAstrakhan region. 39 rural settlements.
The population is 40.1 thousand people.
Why are there so many different languages?
The development of language as a means of communication is governed by two opposing tendencies: divergence (divergence)
convergence (convergence). These tendencies are closely connected with each other, and each separate segment of the historical development of the language gives way to each other in terms of communication. This is manifested in the fact that the collapse of the once unified linguistic community causes linguistic divergence: new linguistic features that appear in the speech of one of the separated tribes do not apply to the language of the other separated groups, and this leads to the accumulation of linguistic differences between them. This is how dialects of a variety of the once single language are formed.
A dialect is the smallest unit of dialect division of a language. In all dialects, the linguistic landscape is considered. Dialects are combined into adverbs, larger territorial units.
Unfamiliar words, moreover, in each locality their own, special. These are regional or dialectal words. They are not part of the national language, but are used only in dialects, and not everywhere, but only in a certain territory. That is why all modern languages in different territories of their distribution are represented by local dialects (in our time - only in rural areas), reflecting the ancient fragmentation of the population of different regions.
Over a long period of isolated development, so many differences can accumulate that different dialects can develop into different languages. On the contrary, in the case of the unification of tribes, the integration of dialects inevitably begins, which is expressed in the smoothing of linguistic differences, the spread of new linguistic features to the speech of all population groups included in such an association. Due to the large number of peoples, words have acquired different meanings.
For example: trouble - very, trouble - hard, difficult.
Bereznik - birch forest, birch forest - boletus mushroom.
A blunder is a slow person, a blunder is to leave quickly, a blunder is a small fish.
obsolete words
The words of our vocabulary by the time of their appearance in the language can be very different. The vast majority of old words are included in the active vocabulary, are used by us often and, due to their constant functioning in speech, are not recognized by the old (cf. Proto-Slavic in origin, the words father, white, carry, when, himself, house, sky, etc.) . Moreover, they form the basis of modern actual vocabulary, although it is replenished with new words very intensively. At the same time, among the words old in time of appearance (even relatively recent ones), such a generally very significant group of words stands out, which are rarely used, under certain conditions, in other words, are obsolete.
obsolete wordscan be divided into two groups: 1) historicisms; 2) archaisms.
historicisms (from the Greek historia - a story about past events) - these are words denoting the names of such objects and phenomena that ceased to exist as a result of the development of society. For example:
"Now they were petitioners…”
The highlighted word is historicism. It has no synonyms in modern Russian. The meaning can be explained only by resorting to an encyclopedic description. This is how they are presented in explanatory dictionaries:
- Petition, -i, cf. 1. In ancient Russia: a bow to the ground with a forehead touching the ground. 2. In ancient Russia: a written request.
- Petitioner, -a, m. In ancient Russia: the one who filed a petition. Petition, oh and. In ancient Russia: petition (in the 2nd meaning), Stolnik, -a, m. In ancient Russia: a courtier, a degree below the boyar, originally a courtier who served at the princely or royal table).
The reason for the appearance of historicisms in the language is in the change in life, customs, in the development of technology, science, and culture. In place of one thing and relationships come others. For example, with the disappearance of such types of clothing as armyak, camisole, caftan, the names of these types of clothing left the Russian language; they can now only be found in historical descriptions. Forever gone, along with the corresponding concepts, the words: serf, quitrent, corvée and others associated with serfdom in Russia.
Archaisms (from the Greek archaios - ancient) - these are words that have fallen out of use due to their replacement with new ones, for example: cheeks - cheeks, loins - lower back, right hand - right hand, tuga - sadness, verses - poems, ramen - shoulders. All of them have synonyms in modern Russian.
Archaisms may differ from a modern synonymous word in different ways: a different lexical meaning(guest - merchant, belly - life), a different grammatical design(perform - perform, at the ball - at the ball), a different morphemic composition(friendship - friendship, fisherman - fisherman), other phonetic features(Guishpanese - Spanish, mirror - mirror). Some words become obsolete entirely, but have modern synonyms: so that - to, destruction - death, harm, hope - to hope and firmly believe. To clarify the meaning of such words when working with the text of a work of art, it is necessary to use an explanatory dictionary or a dictionary of obsolete words. This will help to avoid errors in the interpretation of the text.
The reason for the appearance of archaisms is in the development of the language, in updating its vocabulary: one word is replaced by another.
The words being forced out of use do not disappear without a trace: they are necessary in historical novels and essays - to recreate the life and language coloring of the era.
Sometimes obsolete words begin to be used in a new meaning. So, the word has returned to the modern Russian language dynasty . Previously, it could only be combined with such definitions as royal, monarchical. Now they talk and write about working dynasties, dynasties of miners, meaning families with an "inherited" profession.
We became interested in the population living on the territory of the Osypnobugorsky village council, since in the course of studying the material it turned out that obsolete words are made up of dialects of different peoples, their customs, way of life, with the development of technology. And this is due to the appearance of historicisms and archaisms in the language.
Having studied the nationalities of the population of our village, we deduced our research in the diagram:
Tatars | |
Russians | |
Kazakhs | |
Other |
From this diagram it can be seen that people of different nationalities live on the territory of the Osypnobugorsky village council, which is 3140 people. Most of them are occupied by Tatars. From this it can be assumed that the obsolete words that were and are used in this territory were formed due to the merger and smoothing of linguistic differences, and the spread of new linguistic features that formed new words.
Sociological survey
The next stage of the research work was a sociological survey among residents of the village of Osypnoy Bugor belonging to different age groups.
3 groups were allocated. A total of 100 people were interviewed.
The first group included people under the age of 11 (Grade 4). There are 53 people in total.It was interesting to find out whether the proposed words are used by this age category, because basically everything modern is a value for them.
The second age category included people from 12 to 15 (grades 6-9). Total 33 people. A feature of this age is the transition of children's views to a more serious understanding of life.
The third age category included people aged 16-17 (grades 10-11). Only 17 people.At this age, people are increasingly beginning to appreciate the customs and traditions of their ancestors. Increasingly, they recall their past, evaluating their actions with a new look.
Questionnaire questions were asked.
Questions:
1) Do they know the words presented?
2) What words do they use?
3) How did you find out about them?
We gave each group a different word.
See Appendix 1
Knowledge of obsolete words
Age | know | Don't know |
up to 11 years | Chest of drawers, azure, bylitsa, pass from mouth to mouth, shudders, by the seashore, buried. | If only, in bright purple, printed gingerbread, biryuk, net |
12 – 15 years old | Altyn, bayat, apple, dol, shooter, neck, right hand, off, arshin. | Golik, heater, alcohol, bazhit, evening, spring, sadden tyn, scraper. |
16 - 17 years old | Pantaloons, bayat, golik, heater, run away, lesson, seine, incense. |
Table 1
The use of words taking into account different age categories.
Age | Used | Not used |
up to 11 years | Chest of drawers, azure, bylitsa, at the seaside. | If only, in bright purple, a printed gingerbread, biryuk, tenetnik, shudders, buried, pass from mouth to mouth. |
12 – 15 years old | Altyn, bayat, apple, shooter, neck, right hand, arshin. | Dol, from where, vyya, Golik, heater, alcohol, bazhit, evening, spring, sadden tyn, scraper. |
30-50 years old | Pantaloons, bayat, lesson, run away, seine, incense. | Bazhit, vengat, gasnik, is, swing, nose, corner, fashion. |
table 2
According to the table, the use of words can be distributed in this way. Up to 11 years of age, 65% know words
They know these words because
1) Heard them from their parents.
2) Remember them.
Do not use 55% of the words.
12 - 15 years old 75% do not actually use the words are old, but now it is fashionable to use Western words: cool, outrageous, super, OK. etc., and the old words are forgotten.
16-17 years old know 50%, heard from relatives and began to use these words. But they have a peculiar pronunciation. Rarely used.
The dependence of the use of words on age characteristics
The graph shows that the percentage of words used is decreasing and it can be assumed that the next generation will completely stop using these words, because. they are not studied and are spoken quite rarely. Thus, a large layer of the cultural life of the village may disappear.
Lists of people by recognition category
Conclusion: The table shows that most people know the words from relatives. There are people who know words from books. A small percentage of people who learned the words from the villagers.
List of words with other meanings
In the course of the study, we studied additional information on this list of words. It turned out that these words have different meanings. It depends on the territory and the characteristics of the culture of the population, the area.
Bug 1. Predict.
ObrosikhaIlyinsk.
2. Drive in the game.
MusonkinoKarag.
Bayat 1. Transition. To interpret, narrate, tell something. Plishkari El.
2. Convoke.
Berezovka Us.
Z. Scold.
N.Zalesnaya Os.
Kamenka 1. Blackberry.
VilvaSol.
2. A weed plant with regular yellow small flowers and bitter-sour juice, used as a remedy; celandine.
OsokinoSol.
Eagle Us R. Romanovo Us.
Z. About a backward, young man.
RakinoCherd.
Lesson 1 Gubdor Krasnov.
SvalovaSol.
2.Tax
Lensk Kungur..
In our village, many words have the same meaning and pronunciation. This suggests that the traditions and customs of the population of this territory are very closely intertwined. This also applies to linguistic features.
Each village in the Volga region has its own zest. In this case, these are words that were used only in our village.
Competition "The best connoisseur of obsolete words"
To preserve obsolete words, we held a competition for the title of "The best expert on obsolete words", which were used on the territory of the Osypnobugorsky village council.
Conclusion: not all students were interested in the competition. And since the younger generation is not interested in the past, the problem of the connection between generations arises.
Conclusion
The following conclusions can be drawn from the research work:
1) The formation of the linguistic characteristics of the villagers has come a long historical way.
2) The formation of traditions, customs and rituals occurred due to the development of several archaeological cultures in the area.
3) The formation of modern peoples is the result of the political and economic unification of tribes or population groups.
4) Due to the large number of nationalities, words have acquired different meanings.
5) The pronunciation and meaning of words are passed down from generation to generation from parents to children. Rarely found in books.
6) Depending on age, the use of these words decreases.
We believe that it is necessary to know the outdated words of our area, because this is our culture, our history.
The result of the work was the book "Obsolete words in pictures"
Suggested methods for saving words:
1) Opening of a linguistic circle on the basis of the school.
2) Conducting school holidays using obsolete words.
3) Carrying out events in the museum using antiques.
Bibliography
1.G.N.Chagin “Peoples and cultures of Astrakhan in the 19th - 20th centuries. "Astrakhan, 1986"
2. I.S. Kaptsugovich "A book for reading on the history of Astrakhan" Astrakhan book publishing house, 1992
3. Textbook "Modern Russian language" Publishing house "Prosveshchenie" 2005
4. Internet resources.
5. Dictionary of dialects p. Scree Hillock.
Application
Annex 1. Sociological survey.
Vocabulary for grade 4
Chest of drawers - a low cabinet with drawers for linen or small items,
Azure - light blue, blue,
To pass from mouth to mouth - to communicate something to another person,
Bylitsa - a blade of grass, a stalk of grass,
Buried - hid
Kaby - if,
At the seaside - at the sea bay,
Bright purple - red,
Huddles - someone huddles from the cold,
Printed gingerbread - a gingerbread with printed drawings, letters,
Biryuk - a beast, a bear,
Tenetnik - web, spider.
Dictionary for grades 6-9
Bayat - talk, talk,
Golik - a broom,
Kamenka - stove in the bath,
Zenitsa - eye, pupil,
Alkota - hunger
Shooter - fidget, naughty,
Dol - the same as the valley,
Bug - predict
Altyn - a coin of three kopecks,
Arshin - a measure of length (0.71 m)
Evening - evening
Vyya - neck,
Right hand - right hand
Yesen - autumn
From where - from where,
Sadden - pain,
Tyn - hedge,
Chabert is a neighbor.
Dictionary for grades 10-11
Pantaloons - trousers,
Bagit - predict.
Bayat - talk, talk.
Vengat - cry.
Veres - juniper.
Gasnik - lace.
Golik is a broom.
Is - is.
Kamenka - stove in the bath.
Swing - swing.
Nozem - manure.
Window - window.
Uglan - boy
Run away - run away
Lesson - damage, evil eye.
Faishonka - scarf,
Seine - a large fishing net,
Incense is a pleasant, fragrant smell.
Introduction
historicism archaism vocabulary story
The language includes such units of speech as archaisms and historicisms, despite the fact that they are outdated vocabulary, it cannot be denied that it is necessary to study this linguistic phenomenon, both within the framework of linguistics and literary criticism. The issues of classification of obsolete words, their semantics, as well as the breadth of their application in Russian prose have been the object of research by many linguists. So, it is necessary to note the works of Roman Osipovich Yakobson "Works on Poetics", Viktor Ivanovich Shakhovsky « Emotive semantics of the word as a communicative entity. Sat: Communicative Aspects of Meaning.
The linguistic aspect was studied by such scientists as Mikhail Vasilyevich Nikitin « Course of Linguistic Semantics”, Albert Doza, Alexander Nikolaevich Morokhovsky, Nikolay Maksimovich Shansky « Obsolete words in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language, Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov « Stylistics. Theory of poetic speech. Poetics", « Selected works. Poetics of Russian Literature, Charles Bally « French style"; obsolete words in text linguistics, as well as their stylistic features, were studied by the following linguists: Irina Vladimirovna Arnold, Ilya Romanovich Galperin, Zinaida Yakovlevna Turaeva "Linguistics of the text", Margarita Petrovna Brandes "Position of the writer and the style of a literary work", Olga Sergeevna Akhmanova « Essays on General and Russian Lexicology. However, despite a sufficient number of scientific works in the field of studying the passive stock of the Russian language, interest in archaic vocabulary does not disappear.
The relevance of this work is determined by the fact that archaisms and historicisms are studied in their practical application. Their functional purpose and validity of use in a literary work.
The purpose of this study is to study the features of historicism and archaism, both in general and on the example of a specific work of art, for which we took the story of Sergei Yesenin "Yar". Thus, the object of the study is outdated vocabulary, in particular, representing historicisms and archaisms. This goal predetermines the following tasks:
1.Define the difference between archaisms and historicisms;
2.Identify criteria for determining obsolete vocabulary in a literary work;
.To identify archaisms and historicisms in the story of Sergei Yesenin "Yar";
.Determine the stylistic functions of this category of vocabulary in the story "Yar"
The subject of the research is the role and stylistic functions of historicisms and archaisms in Sergei Yesenin's work "Yar". The material of the work was the archaisms and historicisms identified in the above-mentioned literary text.
As the main methods, semantic-descriptive and analytical-contextological methods are used, which is due to the nature of the phenomenon under study - obsolete vocabulary, as well as the purpose of scientific work - the study of stylistic functions and the role of archaisms and historicisms in the context. The work consists of the content, introduction, 2 parts: theoretical, where the general criteria for identifying these linguistic units in the text are consecrated, as well as practical, where this linguistic phenomenon is studied on a specific example in order to identify functional features and stylistic connotations of historicisms and archaisms - “General characteristics historicisms and archaisms” and “Historicisms and archaisms in Sergei Yesenin’s story “Yar””, as well as conclusions.
Part I. General characteristics of historicisms and archaisms
1 Classification of historicisms and archaisms. Their functional features
It is necessary to understand that a living national language in its development cannot be conserved, and at different stages of functioning, the lexical stock of the language also changes. It has to do with history itself. New words replace the old ones, their composition changes at all language levels: phonetic, morphological, grammatical, lexical, syntactic. Some words acquire more modern equivalents that correspond to the era and literary norms of the language, others fall into disuse and disappear altogether. First of all, this is due to historical transformations in everyday life, culture, behavioral characteristics, nature, that is, the very specificity of existence determines the vocabulary of native speakers. Scientific and technological progress, the emergence of new objects, things, devices, discoveries in various fields of science, borrowing from other cultures, the phenomenon of assimilation and the processes of conquest lead to the emergence of new words, including by replacing existing ones. The disappearance of certain objects of the material world entails the disappearance of the words denoting them. We can say that the change in the composition of the language is a completely “natural” process. Along with the appearance of neologisms, part of the actively used vocabulary goes into the category of obsolete words or even goes out of use. It is known that the basis of the language is active and passive vocabulary. As a matter of fact, neologisms that have not yet taken root in the speech composition, and words that are gradually going out of fashion or have lost their semantics along with changes in historical realities, belong to passive vocabulary.
Outdated vocabulary, in turn, is represented by historicisms and archaisms. This linguistic phenomenon is subject to careful study in the diachrony of the language, as it makes it possible for linguists to trace the change in the language at all levels, as well as to analyze ancient texts. Writers, on the other hand, use marked vocabulary to convey the atmosphere of the depicted historical era. Also, this category of words is of interest to historians, archaeologists, ethnographers and culturologists, as it helps in many ways to restore the historical realities of a certain era. Even psychologists, when studying mental features, turn to linguists for help in determining the meaning of obsolete words.
It is necessary to determine what historicisms and archaisms are, what are their features and differences.
In the "New Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by T. F. Efremova we find the following definitions:
. « Historicism - a word or a set phrase denoting disappeared objects, processes, phenomena (in linguistics)". (p. 236)
. « Archaism - a word, turn of speech or grammatical form, obsolete, out of common use (in linguistics)". (p. 97)
Thus, we will distinguish between the concept of archaisms and historicisms and their functional purpose.
If archaism denotes concepts that exist in reality and simply changed their name along with social changes, since vocabulary is the most mobile part of the language, then historicism defines those objects, processes and phenomena that ceased to exist and remained only as an object of study for historians, witnesses era, but in the modern world either do not exist at all, or do not find application, as they do not correspond to the realities of life. Archaisms are words that for some reason have left the active vocabulary of the Russian language, but have synonymous correspondences in the modern language. The process of redistribution of the active and passive vocabulary of the Russian language was especially widespread in the 20th century, however, passivation can undergo reactivation. There are several explanations for this: both the returning fashion for a given word, which a literary work can contribute to, and possible changes in socio-economic, cultural and natural realities.
The process of archaization has affected all parts of speech, however, the largest number of words that have undergone this transformation are such lexical and grammatical categories as nouns, adjectives and verbs. The largest group is made up of nouns. As for historicisms, these are also nouns and verbs. Adjectives, as well as other parts of speech, were subjected to a lesser degree of passivation.
Edneralova Natalya Gennadievna distributes historicisms and archaisms in terms of their relevance to the following thematic groups:
1) everyday vocabulary;
) personal-physiological and psychological vocabulary;
) socio-political vocabulary;
) economic vocabulary;
) military vocabulary;
) vocabulary of culture, upbringing and education;
) vocabulary of nature, space, time;
) scientific and technical vocabulary.
(Edneralova N.G. "Obsolete vocabulary of the Russian language of the newest period, Voronezh, 2003, p. 326)
She also notes that part of the passive vocabulary and phraseological units that have become obsolete due to historical circumstances can belong to two or more thematic groups at once. The most actively replenished with historicisms and archaisms are household, military, personal-physiological and psychological vocabulary. Since it is the intimate, social and everyday spheres of life that are subject to strong transformations, and wars, as you know, contribute to both the assimilation of languages and scientific and technological progress in the field of building up military potential, the phenomena of the substratum and superstratum, and finally, the obsolescence of many items of military use.
Most of the obsolete words are precisely archaisms. This figure reaches approximately 70% of the total composition of passive vocabulary. The ratio of historicisms and archaisms on thematic groups is also displayed. If everyday, military and personal-physiological vocabulary is mostly represented by historicisms, historicisms also prevail in scientific and technical vocabulary. That economic vocabulary, the vocabulary of culture, upbringing and education, socio-political, as well as the vocabulary of nature, space and time in its mass is represented by archaisms, since the concepts of these groups are rarely subject to complete disappearance and continue to exist in the language in their new form, which is represented synonymous words. Also, most of the obsolete phraseological units belong specifically to archaisms, since the metaphor of a language is rarely subject to disappearance.
As for the archaic vocabulary. then it, in turn, can be classified according to the following premise. Consider the typology of obsolete vocabulary according to which aspect of the word is obsolete. So, modern linguists distinguish the following types of archaisms:
Lexical - the word itself has become obsolete, since its phonetic-letter composition has disappeared from use and has been replaced by a new word that has a completely different, unlike the original, phonetic composition. For example, eye - eye, mouth - lips, cheeks - cheeks, ramen - shoulders.
Phonetic - in connection with historical transformations in phonetics, derivatology and grammar, the sound image of the word has changed, which is also reflected in its spelling. This aspect was influenced by: the termination of the law of the open syllable, the development of full vowel, a change in the pronunciation of vowels, a combination of hard and soft consonants, the degree of hardness, the influence of affricates, etc. For example, numer - number, hospital - hospital, city - city, shore - coast, head - head, mammal - milk, gold - gold. Many phonetic archaisms have become expressive means of a poetic text.
Derivative or derivational - due to changes in the means of word formation, for example, the obsolescence of a suffix or prefix. For example, flirt - flirt, fisherman - fisherman, museum - museum.
4. Grammatical - the word has lost some forms, which has changed the paradigmatic composition. For example , fun - fun, cool - cool.
5. Semantic - the word exists in the modern language, but has lost one or more meanings. For example, article- (in the 18-19 centuries it was used to designate an article, as a borrowing from French) - one of the official parts of speech used as part of a noun phrase to express a number of linguistic meanings, including the category of certainty / uncertainty in relation to the field of knowledge of the speaker / the writer and addressee of the speech (in the modern sense of the word).
However, different linguists have classified archaisms and historicisms in different ways, there is still no consensus on this matter, therefore the issue of typology remains debatable at the moment. In addition to the main ones mentioned above, Dmitry Nikolaevich Shmelev identifies partial archaisms and exoticisms, Oleg Evgenievich Voronichev supplements the typology with proper lexical and lexico-semantic historicisms. Elena Innokentievna Dibrova proposes to take into account the following word-formation feature, on the basis of which she expands the classification: she distinguishes between derivational archaisms and historicisms single-rooted and multi-rooted. So, for example, those archaisms that have changed their root, due to the historical development of the language, are called heterogeneous: palm - hand, head - head. Single-rooted ones include those that have retained the old root, but have changed the suffix, prefix, inflection, etc.
In the development of the language, it is necessary to distinguish 3 temporal stages of vocabulary obsolescence:
) Pre-Soviet (examples: boyar, veche, governor, rack, clerk, bondage, localism, settlement, smerd, serf, neck, head, right hand, hand, camisole, letnik, buffoon). As we can see, most of the words belong to the so-called Slavicisms and existed in the historical stages of the existence of Kievan Rus and the period of feudal fragmentation. Most of the vocabulary, which either completely disappeared from the language stock of native speakers, or found synonyms and moved into the marked category, was used to refer to the disappeared estates, household items, household utensils, clothing, as well as manifestations of the economic structure, management and names of body parts. So, for example, “smerd” or “kholop”, which are used to designate categories of peasants of different degrees of dependence, disappeared along with a change in the social structure of society. Such archaisms as head - head (the change occurred, first of all, at the phonetic level with the development of full voice), hand - palm (here we see the phenomenon of prostheses) changed their sound with the transformation of the language.
) Soviet (examples: policeman, tenth, police officer, senate, lordship, uniform, maiden, uncle, maid, lorgnette, imperial, tavern, mernik, nikolaevka, span, batman, cavalry guard). At this stage, the vocabulary, which is the realities of both Tsarist Russia and the USSR, has undergone a redistribution. It was at the Soviet stage of the development of the language that dictionaries were replenished with historicisms and archaisms. First of all, this was due to the October Revolution of 1917, after which there were significant changes in the lexical composition of the language and updating the rules of grammar. Then a new replenishment occurred in the post-war period. For example, the Red Army, Red Army soldier, red, political officer, armored train, Gulag, People's Commissariat, Council of People's Commissars, MTS (Motor and Tractor Station), shock work, virgin lands, reading room, seven-year plan.
) Modern stage. At the present stage of vocabulary passivation, most of the Soviet neoplasms, which disappeared from reality along with the collapse of the USSR, became historicisms. For example, Octobrist, Komsomolets, Country of Soviets, Leninists, Khrushchev, party committee, party bureau, Komsomol organizer, gkchpist. Thus, it was the vocabulary of the political and military sphere that underwent significant changes.
At all stages of transformations in the lexical and phraseological composition of the language, speech was updated, replenished with new words and freed from those that had lost touch with reality. However, one should not forget that the processes of transition of words into dictionaries of active and passive vocabulary are mobile. Neologisms eventually become part of a neutral vocabulary, and historicisms with archaisms, due to circumstances, are capable of being revived in their original form, either by acquiring a new connotation or returning in the form of an author's trope. Moreover, the linguist Z. F. Belyanskaya notes that attributing marked vocabulary to a passive dictionary is initially wrong, since archaisms, historicisms and other specific categories of words are just manifestations of special vocabulary, but they need to be equalized with neutral vocabulary. “The fuzzy distinction between the phenomena of language and speech affected Leonid Arkadyevich Bulakhovsky’s assignment of words of special use, archaisms, neologisms, dialectisms and many borrowings to the passive vocabulary of the language, and Alexander Alexandrovich Reformatsky also included expressive expressions.” (Belyanskaya Zinaida Fedorovna. Outdated vocabulary of the modern Russian language (historicism): Dis. Candidate of Philology. Sciences. L., 1998. 201 p.). If the situation with historicisms is relatively clear, then the attribution of archaisms to passive vocabulary is still a debatable issue of modern linguistics. Also, the proof of the problem of attributing some archaisms and historicisms to passive vocabulary, according to Belyanskaya, is the use of such words in an official business style. We often meet in this or that documentation: the undersigned, the deed, this year, attached to this, the deed. However, these "clericalisms" do not carry any expressive and stylistic coloring, but are part of a special vocabulary inherent in the official business style. Despite the narrow scope of use, this fact should not be omitted when considering the very concept of "active and passive vocabulary".
2 Spheres of use of archaic vocabulary
Let us turn to the consideration of the phenomenon of obsolete vocabulary in literary works. Writers and poets of different eras addressed the use of this category of the lexical stock of the language. We meet historicisms and archaisms both in Pushkin, Zhukovsky, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev, Sholokhov, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and others, and in the work of modern writers. So, for example, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov often resorted to the use of words that are part of the Old Church Slavonic language to maintain the civic-patriotic pathos of their works.
"Her chelaI remember the cover
And eyes bright as heaven.
But I delved into her conversations a little.
I was embarrassed by the strict beauty
Her chela, calm mouthand eyes,
And full of shrines words».
(A.S. Pushkin. Works in three volumes. Volume 2 St. Petersburg: Golden Age, Diamant, 1997)
1.Chelo - a, mm. chela, chel, chelam, cf. (obsolete high). Same as forehead. High h. 4 Beat with a forehead (old L - 1) to whom, bow low to the ground. Beat the boyar with the forehead; 2) to whom, to thank. Beat with a forehead for help, for protection; 3) to whom, to bring a gift, gifts. Beat with a brow with silver, sables; 4) to whom, to ask for something. Beat with the brow of the sovereign for protection; 5) to whom to complain to whom. To beat with a forehead on the offender. (Ozhegov S. I., Shvedova N. Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997, vol. 4, p. 223)
2.Eye - -a, pl. eyes, eyes (obsolete and high) and (old) tow, tow, cf. (obsolete and high). Same as eye (in 1 value). Sees about., Yes, the tooth is numb (last about the impossibility of getting what seems affordable). O. for O., a tooth is a tooth (about those who take revenge, forgetting nothing, not forgiving). * In the blink of an eye (book) - in an instant, instantly, immediately. (Ozhegov S. I., Shvedova N. Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997, vol. 3, p. 126)
3.Mouth - mouth, mouth (obsolete). Mouth, lips. Close, open at. Kiss on the mouth. Truth speaks through the mouth of a baby (ate). On the lips of all (many) (book). Everyone talks, everyone discusses. The name of a popular singer is on everyone's lips. I’ll take into account whom (book) - I’m ready to say, pronounce. The confession was on his lips. From whose mouth (learn, hear) (book) - hear from someone. From the lips of the father to know the sad news. Firsthand (learn, hear) (book) - directly from the one who is better informed than others. From mouth to mouth to convey what (book) - to report from one to another. In the mouth, whose put (any words, thoughts) (book) - to force to speak on one's own behalf, on one's own behalf. The writer put his thoughts into the mouth of the hero. With your lips and honey to drink - it is said in the meaning. it would be nice if you were right, if your assumptions came true. (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language. 4th ed., M., 1997, V. 4, S. 132)
4.Beauty - -s, well. 1. Same as beauty (in 1 and 2 values) (obsolete). In all its glory (in all its splendor, beauty, and also ironically: with all its flaws, in all its ugliness). For beauty (to be beautiful; simple.). 2. what. Decoration, glory of something (high). K. and the pride of science. ((Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, T. 2, P. 97)
5.Look - -a, m. The same as the look (in 1 and 2 meanings). Fix your eyes somewhere. Turn your gaze to someone. Affectionate gaze. (Ozhegov S. I., Shvedova N. Yu. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, T. 1, S. 141)
.Words - -her, -esam (obsolete and ironic). Words, speech. His promises are empty. Weaving of words (about wordy and meaningless speaking). (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, T. 3, S. 219)
However, it goes without saying that historical novels and stories are most saturated with historicism and archaism, since the marked vocabulary conveys the spirit of the era in the best possible way, reflects life realities, and immerses the reader into the atmosphere of the described event. If in purely historical, scientific works obsolete vocabulary performs a nominative function, then in works of art the function of such vocabulary is already defined as nominative-stylistic, since it serves not only to give a clear definition of the concept, but also creates a certain color of the era. Also, obsolete words can perform a stylistic function proper, that is, they can serve as expressive means of a work, be an auxiliary means for giving the text a special patriotic sound, solemn fullness. Often used in high style genres.
"Arise, prophet, and see, and heed,
Fulfill my will
And, bypassing the seas and lands,
Burn people's hearts with the verb." (A.S. Pushkin. Works in three volumes. Volume 2. St. Petersburg: Golden Age, Diamant, 1997)
Moreover, archaisms in works of art are used most often phonetic, lexical or derivational, to a lesser extent semantic. Historicisms are used in novels of the historical, adventure, and military genres. An example is the novel by Alexei Nikolaevich Tolstoy "Peter I":
« Two white rynds with axes on their shoulders stood at two doors, inaudibly shifting". (Alexey Tolstoy. Collected works in eight volumes. "Pravda", Moscow. 1972, Vol. 7.)
Rynda-s, m. In Russia in the 15th-17th centuries: a warrior of the court guard . (
Historicisms and archaisms are also found in the names: "White Guard" by Mikhail Bulgakov, "Executor" by Konissky, "Old World Landowners" by Gogol, "Warriors" by Yugov, "City of Peter" by Druzhinin, "Virgin Soil Upturned" by Mikhail Sholokhov, etc.
Thus, archaic vocabulary is widely applicable in all functional styles of speech, but most of all in artistic ones. But also in journalistic and official business. It occurs least of all in colloquial, and then usually, as an example of a language game.
Historicisms and archaisms are used to stylize an era, often in describing interiors, portraits, and everyday life.
An example is an excerpt from Mikhail Sholokhov's novel The Quiet Flows the Don:
1.« From that time on, he was rarely seen in the farm, he did not even go to the Maidan. He lived in his kuren, on the outskirts of the Don, as a biryuk. Gutara about him on the farm wonderfully? e. The children who grazed the calves behind the drive told that they saw how Prokofy in the evenings, when the dawns wither, carried his wife in his arms to the Tatar, azhnik, mound. He planted it there on the top of the mound, with its back to the porous stone, worn down by centuries, sat next to it, and for a long time they looked at the steppe. They looked until the dawn was dying, and then Prokofy wrapped his wife in a zipun and carried her home in his arms. The farm was lost in conjectures, looking for an explanation for such outlandish acts, the women had no time to look for conversations. They also spoke differently about Prokofy's wife: some claimed that she had hitherto unseen beauty, others - on the contrary. Everything was decided after the most desperate of the women, the zhalmerka Mavra, ran to Prokofy as if for fresh sourdough. Prokofy climbed into the cellar for sourdough, and during this time Mavra saw that the Turkish woman Prokofy had caught was the last of the worthless ones ...". (Mikhail Sholokhov, collected works in eight volumes. Moscow. Pravda. 1980, Volume 1.)
1.Farm - a. pl. -a, -ov, m. 1. Separate land plot with the owner's estate. Check out x. 2. In the southern regions: a peasant settlement, a village. || skillful. farm, -oka, m. (to 1 enach.). || adj. hu-torskby, th, th. (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
2.Maidan -a, m. In Ukraine and in the southern regions of Russia: market, market square. || adj. maidan, th, th. (Ozhegov S. I., Shvedova N. Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
3.Kuren -I, m. 1. The same as a hut (reg.). 2. On the Don and Kuban: a hut, a house. 3. In the old days: a separate part of the Zaporozhye Cossack army, as well as its camp. || adj. smoked, -th, -th (to 3 digits). K. ataman. Choose a smoker (n.). (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
.Otshib -a, m ;. on the outskirts (colloquial) - away from others. Out of the way hut. To live on the outskirts (also trans.: alone, not with others). (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
Biryuk-a, m. 1. Lone wolf (region). 2. trans. An unsociable and gloomy person (colloquial). Watch with a biryuk. || adj. biryu-chi, -ya, -ye (to 1 value).
5.(Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
6.Run -a, m. A fenced side village street, a road along which a herd is being driven. || adj. running, th, th. (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
For research work in the field of literary criticism, folk poetic texts, songs, thoughts and epics, chronicles and words, clerical documents of the period of feudalism and tsarist Russia will provide rich material. In cooperation with historians and archaeologists, you can get interesting information from the field of ethnography, folklore and cultural studies.
Part II. Historicisms and archaisms in Sergei Yesenin's story "Yar"
1 Archaisms and historicisms in Sergei Yesenin's story "Yar"
The prose of Sergei Yesenin is little known to a wide range of readers and serves more as an object of study for philologists and literary critics. The work "Yar" was created by the author in 1915 and is dedicated to the native village of the writer Konstantinovo. First published a year later. It is this story that we have chosen as demonstrative material for the study of the functionality of archaic vocabulary and historicisms in a literary work, since, in our opinion, it is a good example of such a work.
The study analyzed 230 language units, most of which are archaisms. Some of the words are recorded in a dictionary compiled by Yesenin's sister, Alexandra Alexandrovna Yesenina, first published in the Collected Works in 5 volumes. T. 4. M .: Goslitizdat, 1962, p. 304-310. Some archaisms remained in the speech of native speakers at the level of the local dialect. (Yesenin S. A. Collected works in 5 vols. T. 4. M .: Goslitizdat, 1962, p. 319)
Next, we turn to the typification of archaisms by class. The largest number of archaisms and historicisms in this work refers to everyday vocabulary, as well as the vocabulary of nature, space and time. Many of them denote positions that existed at the beginning of the 20th century, items of clothing, agricultural implements, natural phenomena. There are also historicisms for the designation of household items, those that relate directly to housing or are associated with housekeeping and the work of rural residents. So, for example, in chapter 68 we meet:
“Karev put on a leather jacket, gave Philip a rope to cover himself, and drove to Chukhlinka.”
There are immediately 2 historicisms related to household items:
1. Veretier- a large tarpaulin on which grain is dried in the sun, and carts with sacks of bread are covered with it in bad weather.
2. Kozhan(obsolete) - men's leather oilcloth coat.
As for the distribution of archaisms by type, according to the linguistic aspect, only a few have a phonetic aspect as their basis: tsubitsy - lapwings, chimerika - hellebore, chrestets - sacrum, zherlika - zherlitsa. "Look, what serious- said, lisping, the deacon, - you strive for everything in a trap no worse than our priest, and look at the cosmos you will cling to. (ch. 17)
1. serious- serious.
Features of such pronunciation can be explained by the presence of territorial dialects. This is also connected with the Old Russian period of the existence of the Old Slavonic language and the concept of “palatalization”.
Most of the archaisms are lexical: “My lodge is not far away. I am only wolves tudylicha beat." (ch. 48)
1. Tudylich- in that place, in that direction; or - not now, not now.
"At dawn, bright, colorful tug, women and girls stretched across the meadow with bodies and buckets and merrily sang songs. (ch. 78)
1. Guzhom- in a string, single file or crowd.
An example of word-formation archaism is the following sentence: “ Pegasusthe stallion threw back his unchained legs, bared his teeth and twirled his ears. (ch. 43)
1. Pegasus- piebald.
If we consider archaisms and historicisms in the work from the point of view of correlating them to certain lexical and grammatical categories, it turns out that most of the obsolete vocabulary is nouns (164 language units), a sufficient number of adverbs (29 language units), as well as verbs ( 32 language units).
According to semantic features, all nouns can be divided into several categories. First of all, these are proper and common nouns. So, we attribute to our own: Anisim, Aksinya (diminutive Aksyutka), Lympiada, Afonyushka (joking Afonka), Fetinya, Egoriy, Kuzka, Ivan Yaklich, Mikolin day, Ramenki, Akulina, Epishka, Chukhlinka, Fedot, Prokhor, Yen, Prosinya, Maryana, Martha (Marfunka).
Common nouns, in turn, are of 4 types: concrete, abstract, real and collective.
Specific in the piece: bochag, beam, lingonberry, buchen, howl, windrow, vyben, gaitan, gashnitsa, bottom, katnik, konurka, konyashka, korotayka, otava, rein, potozhok, pestun, outskirts, reaping, clerk, deacon, centenary, tenth etc.
Abstract is almost non-existent.
Substances include: lushnik, otava, putvo.
There are also very few collective ones, only for the designation of the names of berries: a drunkard, a drunkard, a drunkard.
An interesting example can be phraseological units that have fallen into disuse: for example, blooming lips - covered with a rash.
2 Functions of archaisms and historicisms in S.A. Yesenin "Yar"
What is the purpose of historicism and archaism in this work? First of all, they create the atmosphere of the historical era of the early 20th century, they color the life of the village especially well, because it is thanks to the many colorful archaic and colloquial expressions that the reader can be transported to the countryside from speech, descriptions of life, interior, rural, typically Russian landscapes, understand what the author wanted to write. All archaic expressions in the work perform a nominal-stylistic function. In the very first chapter at the beginning we meet:
"From chapygitwo hares emerged with a snort and, blowing up the snow, ran to boundary.
A wagon train creaked along the calico road; under obrotifluttered vakhiri, and the horses, throwing the cud, pricked up their ears.
Lights gleamed ominously from the mesh bushes and, hiding, went out.
Wolves, - a high shadow swayed in the undermoon.
1. Mezha- the border between land plots, which is a narrow strip.
2. Chapyga(chapyzhnik) - a frequent shrub, impenetrable thicket.
3. Obrot- halter, horse bridle without a bit, with one reason for a leash.
4. Vyakhir- Mesh purse for hay.
5. Ushuk- rustle.
If the first 4 language units are archaisms, then ushuk- an example of historicism, since this word completely disappeared from literary speech and remained only in literary works, as a means of creating color, described by the author of the era.
Some words for designating positions, including church ranks, have also gone out of use, but they cannot be unambiguously attributed to passive vocabulary, since they have lost only part of their semantic meaning. For example, the word " clerk". The dictionary gives us the following definition: “(from Gr. diakonos - a servant) - in the Russian state until the 18th century. head and clerk of the office of various departments. Supervised the work of institutions of local government (moving huts) and orders (head of orders or their assistants). From the 15th century - landowners. In the XV-XVII centuries. - as part of the duma ranks. (Large legal dictionary. - M.: Infra-M. A. Ya. Sukharev, V. E. Krutskikh, A. Ya. Sukhareva. 2003.) However, this is one of the meanings of the word, which refers to the ancient Russian period of the existence of the Russian language. But a different meaning has been preserved: “(gr. diakonos servant) in the Orthodox Church: a lower servant, a psalm reader. The same as the deacon ”(Dictionary of Foreign Words of the Russian Language). In common parlance, "clerk" refers to any clergyman, especially in rural areas. Also, this word can have a negative connotation if it denotes an ironic attitude towards a not very educated person, or even sometimes in the context you can find a similar designation, which is based on the concept of " hypocrite».
Therefore, if you want to determine the exact semantic load of a word or expression, you must consider it in context.
So, outdated vocabulary in the work of Sergei Yesenin performs several functions at once. He actively uses words that have fallen into disuse or have been preserved at the local level, since he is an unconditionally national, Russian writer, which is reflected in the word, because the study of the vocabulary of the works of a particular writer is directly related to literary analysis. Since it is in the vocabulary that expressive means are hidden that determine the individuality of the work and its value.
Izmail Ivanovich Sreznevsky wrote: Each word is a representative of a concept that was among the people: what was expressed in a word was in life; what was not in life, for that there was no word. Every word for the historian is a witness, a monument, a factor in the life of a people, the more important the more important the concept it expresses. Complementing one another, they together represent the system of concepts of the people, convey the true story of the life of the people"(Sreznevsky 1887, 35).
Therefore, we can distinguish the following stylistic and stylistic functions of archaisms and historicisms in S. Yesenin's story "Yar":
1.reflection of the language style of the era;
2.displaying the linguistic features of a particular area (the village of Konstantinovo, the Ryazan region, the Ryazan group of South Russian dialects). According to the typology of V.G. Orlova, who found reflection in the joint work with the dialectologist K.F., Zakharova “Dialect division of the Russian language”. (K.F. Zakharova, V.G. Orlova. Dialect division of the Russian language. M .: Nauka, 1970, p. 176), as well as the Atlas of Russian dialects of the central regions south of Moscow / Ed. V.G. Orlova. (1964)
3.stylization - recreating a living spoken language
4.expressive-emotional connotation (disparaging, slangy, ironic, playful, offensive, vulgar vocabulary)
Some of the historicisms that were used by Sergei Yesenin in the work, at the time of writing, had not yet completely lost their meaning (for example, centenary, clerk), but are perceived as such only by a modern reader, that is, a reader of the 21st century.
Speaking directly about the role of obsolete vocabulary in the poet's work, it should be noted that if archaisms, first of all, serve as a means of stylization, then historicisms perform mainly a nominative function, since sometimes it is impossible to define the described phenomenon, object, sensation in a different way. , since there are simply no synonyms that accurately convey what the author means.
« Zubok brought?
Pop glanced at the juicy ham, just taken out of the brine, and poked at the redberry love finger.
Good." (ch. 16)
1. Zubok- a gift for a newborn.
2. Lyubovina- lean part of salted pork meat.
Grigory Osipovich Vinokur notes: “ For a whole century, we have been competing in realistic fiction with two main styles: 1. Imitating and 2. Non-imitating. This is the new contradiction that realism has brought with it."(Vinokur 1991: 417.). The distinguishing feature of the "non-imitating" style is a sharp distinction between the speech of the author and the character, which can be replaced by the fact that the character speaks in the author's way, and not vice versa. The differential feature of the “imitating” style is the inevitable merging of the author and the character in character speech, “necessarily associated with the “stucco”, “ornamental” sense of the language, and not with its strict geometric pattern”.
Thus, Sergei Yesenin writes in the so-called "imitating" style, however, being himself a native of the village, he takes into account those features that he himself absorbed in childhood, he creates not even a historical story, but "a story from Russian folk life." If, all of a sudden, his heroes spoke in a literary solemn high language, it would look simply clumsy, would not be combined with the events that are reflected in the story and instead of a realistic serious work that allows us to talk about Russian customs, mentality, finally, following after Lossky “about the mysterious Russian soul”, we would read semi-humorous, buffoonish, probably even offensive, similar to Vozny’s speech in Ivan Kotlyarevsky’s Natalka-Poltavka.
Conclusion
Thus, our study showed that in the story of Sergei Yesenin "Yar" there are a large number of archaisms and historicisms (230 language units). Of these, 71% of the total number of all historicisms and archaisms falls on the lexical and grammatical category of nouns, 14% on adverbs, 13% on verbs and their forms, and the remaining 3% are adjectives and phraseological units. From these data, we can conclude that most of the historicisms and archaisms make up a group of nouns, least of all Sergei Yesenin refers to adjectives.
The use of obsolete words in this work is more than justified, if not even necessary, since the use of lexical units of the passive vocabulary of the language is one of the most important techniques in the work we are considering. Archaisms and historicisms are used in the speech of the characters of the story, as well as in lyrical digressions when describing landscapes and interiors. Obsolete words in a work of art are intended to reflect the realities and concepts of the era referred to in the text.
Among the archaisms, we have identified five groups. These are actually lexical, semantic, phonetic, derivational (or derivational) and grammatical archaisms.
Most of the historicisms and archaisms, if they are not phonetic or derivational, are not clear to the modern reader, and it is necessary to refer to the dictionary to find out their meaning. For the convenience of readers, the sister of the poet A.A. Yesenina created a dictionary of obsolete vocabulary and dialectisms, which is published in the appendix to the editions of the story. Also in modern editions you can find its expanded and supplemented version.
Summing up the study of the features of the use of obsolete vocabulary in Sergei Yesenin's story "Yar", we note that the linguistic basis of the story is a living, folk, changing Russian language in its constant development. Skillfully woven into the canvas, colloquial words, archaic forms, historicisms, convey the flavor of the era, as well as the life of the peasants. S.A. Yesenin occupies a special place in Russian literature, not only as a singer of Russian nature, love and the so-called "eternal themes", but also as a great connoisseur of the psychology of a villager, life, and the era that the poet and prose writer captured with his genius on paper and for centuries .
List of used literature
1.Efremova, T.F. New dictionary of the Russian language. Explanatory and derivational: St. 136000 dictionary. st., ok. 250000 semantics. units: [In 2 tons]. - M.: Rus. yaz., 2000.
2. Edneralova N.G. "Obsolete vocabulary of the Russian language of the newest period, Voronezh, 2003, p. 326
3. Belyanskaya Z.F. Outdated vocabulary of the modern Russian language (historicisms): Dis. cand. philol. Sciences. L., 1998. 201 p.
A.S. Pushkin. Works in three volumes. Volume 2 St. Petersburg: The Golden Age, Diamant, 1997
Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997
Alexey Tolstoy. Collected Works in eight volumes. Pravda, Moscow. 1972. Vol. 7, 8.
Mikhail Sholokhov, collected works in eight volumes. Moscow. "Truth". 1980 Volume 1.
S.A. Yesenin Collected works in 5 volumes. T. 4. M .: Goslitizdat, 1962, p. 319
Vinogradov V.V. Lexicology and lexicography: Selected works / Ed. ed. V.G. Kostomarov. Moscow: Nauka, 1977.
Sreznevsky I.I. M. 1887, 35.
Big legal dictionary. - M.: Infra-M. AND I. Sukharev, V.E. Krutskikh, A.Ya. Sukharev. 2003
K.F. Zakharova, V.G. Orlov. Dialect division of the Russian language. M.: Nauka, 1970, p. 176
14. Atlas of Russian dialects of the central regions south of Moscow / Ed. V.G. Orlova., M, 1964
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General characteristics of historicisms and archaisms. Classification of historicisms and archaisms, their functional features. Spheres of use of archaic vocabulary. Historicisms and archaisms in Sergei Yesenin's story "Yar". General characteristics of obsolete vocabulary.
Introduction
historicism archaism vocabulary story
The language includes such units of speech as archaisms and historicisms, despite the fact that they are outdated vocabulary, it cannot be denied that it is necessary to study this linguistic phenomenon, both within the framework of linguistics and literary criticism. The issues of classification of obsolete words, their semantics, as well as the breadth of their application in Russian prose have been the object of research by many linguists. So, it is necessary to note the works of Roman Osipovich Yakobson “Works on Poetics”, Viktor Ivanovich Shakhovsky “Emotive semantics of the word as a communicative essence. Sat: Communicative Aspects of Meaning.
The linguistic aspect was studied by such scientists as Mikhail Vasilievich Nikitin "Course of Linguistic Semantics", Albert Doza, Alexander Nikolaevich Morokhovsky, Nikolai Maksimovich Shansky "Obsolete Words in the Vocabulary of the Modern Russian Language", Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov "Stylistics. Theory of poetic speech. Poetics”, “Selected Works. Poetics of Russian Literature”, Charles Balli “French Style”; obsolete words in text linguistics, as well as their stylistic features, were studied by the following linguists: Irina Vladimirovna Arnold, Ilya Romanovich Galperin, Zinaida Yakovlevna Turaeva “Text Linguistics”, Margarita Petrovna Brandes “The Position of the Writer and the Style of a Literary Work”, Olga Sergeevna Akhmanova “Essays on the General and Russian lexicology. However, despite a sufficient number of scientific works in the field of studying the passive stock of the Russian language, interest in archaic vocabulary does not disappear.
The relevance of this work is determined by the fact that archaisms and historicisms are studied in their practical application. Their functional purpose and validity of use in a literary work.
The purpose of this study is to study the features of historicism and archaism, both in general and on the example of a specific work of art, for which we took the story of Sergei Yesenin "Yar". Thus, the object of the study is outdated vocabulary, in particular, representing historicisms and archaisms. This goal predetermines the following tasks:
1. Determine the difference between archaisms and historicisms;
2. Identify the criteria for determining obsolete vocabulary in a literary work;
3. To identify archaisms and historicisms in Sergei Yesenin's story "Yar";
4. Determine the stylistic functions of this category of vocabulary in the story "Yar"
The subject of the research is the role and stylistic functions of historicisms and archaisms in Sergei Yesenin's work "Yar". The material of the work was the archaisms and historicisms identified in the above-mentioned literary text.
As the main methods, semantic-descriptive and analytical-contextological methods are used, which is due to the nature of the phenomenon under study - obsolete vocabulary, as well as the purpose of scientific work - the study of stylistic functions and the role of archaisms and historicisms in the context. The work consists of the content, introduction, 2 parts: theoretical, where the general criteria for identifying these linguistic units in the text are consecrated, as well as practical, where this linguistic phenomenon is studied on a specific example in order to identify functional features and stylistic connotations of historicisms and archaisms - “General characteristics historicisms and archaisms” and “Historicisms and archaisms in Sergei Yesenin’s story “Yar””, as well as conclusions.
Part I. General characteristics of historicisms and archaisms
1.1 Classification of historicisms and archaisms. Their functional features
It is necessary to understand that a living national language in its development cannot be conserved, and at different stages of functioning, the lexical stock of the language also changes. It has to do with history itself. New words replace the old ones, their composition changes at all language levels: phonetic, morphological, grammatical, lexical, syntactic. Some words acquire more modern equivalents that correspond to the era and literary norms of the language, others fall into disuse and disappear altogether. First of all, this is due to historical transformations in everyday life, culture, behavioral characteristics, nature, that is, the very specificity of existence determines the vocabulary of native speakers. Scientific and technological progress, the emergence of new objects, things, devices, discoveries in various fields of science, borrowing from other cultures, the phenomenon of assimilation and the processes of conquest lead to the emergence of new words, including by replacing existing ones. The disappearance of certain objects of the material world entails the disappearance of the words denoting them. We can say that the change in the composition of the language is a completely “natural” process. Along with the appearance of neologisms, part of the actively used vocabulary goes into the category of obsolete words or even goes out of use. It is known that the basis of the language is active and passive vocabulary. As a matter of fact, neologisms that have not yet taken root in the speech composition, and words that are gradually going out of fashion or have lost their semantics along with changes in historical realities, belong to passive vocabulary.
Outdated vocabulary, in turn, is represented by historicisms and archaisms. This linguistic phenomenon is subject to careful study in the diachrony of the language, as it makes it possible for linguists to trace the change in the language at all levels, as well as to analyze ancient texts. Writers, on the other hand, use marked vocabulary to convey the atmosphere of the depicted historical era. Also, this category of words is of interest to historians, archaeologists, ethnographers and culturologists, as it helps in many ways to restore the historical realities of a certain era. Even psychologists, when studying mental features, turn to linguists for help in determining the meaning of obsolete words.
It is necessary to determine what historicisms and archaisms are, what are their features and differences.
In the "New Dictionary of the Russian Language" edited by T. F. Efremova we find the following definitions:
one. " historicism - a word or a set phrase denoting disappeared objects, processes, phenomena (in linguistics)". (p. 236)
2. " Archaism - word, figure of speech or grammatical form, obsolete, obsolete (in linguistics)". (p. 97)
Thus, we will distinguish between the concept of archaisms and historicisms and their functional purpose.
If archaism denotes concepts that exist in reality and simply changed their name along with social changes, since vocabulary is the most mobile part of the language, then historicism defines those objects, processes and phenomena that ceased to exist and remained only as an object of study for historians, witnesses era, but in the modern world either do not exist at all, or do not find application, as they do not correspond to the realities of life. Archaisms are words that for some reason have left the active vocabulary of the Russian language, but have synonymous correspondences in the modern language. The process of redistribution of the active and passive vocabulary of the Russian language was especially widespread in the 20th century, however, passivation can undergo reactivation. There are several explanations for this: both the returning fashion for a given word, which a literary work can contribute to, and possible changes in socio-economic, cultural and natural realities.
The process of archaization has affected all parts of speech, however, the largest number of words that have undergone this transformation are such lexical and grammatical categories as nouns, adjectives and verbs. The largest group is made up of nouns. As for historicisms, these are also nouns and verbs. Adjectives, as well as other parts of speech, were subjected to a lesser degree of passivation.
Edneralova Natalya Gennadievna distributes historicisms and archaisms in terms of their relevance to the following thematic groups:
1) everyday vocabulary;
2) personal-physiological and psychological vocabulary;
3) socio-political vocabulary;
4) economic vocabulary;
5) military vocabulary;
6) vocabulary of culture, upbringing and education;
7) vocabulary of nature, space, time;
8) scientific and technical vocabulary.
(Edneralova N.G. "Obsolete vocabulary of the Russian language of the newest period, Voronezh, 2003, p. 326)
She also notes that part of the passive vocabulary and phraseological units that have become obsolete due to historical circumstances can belong to two or more thematic groups at once. The most actively replenished with historicisms and archaisms are household, military, personal-physiological and psychological vocabulary. Since it is the intimate, social and everyday spheres of life that are subject to strong transformations, and wars, as you know, contribute to both the assimilation of languages and scientific and technological progress in the field of building up military potential, the phenomena of the substratum and superstratum, and finally, the obsolescence of many items of military use.
Most of the obsolete words are precisely archaisms. This figure reaches approximately 70% of the total composition of passive vocabulary. The ratio of historicisms and archaisms on thematic groups is also displayed. If everyday, military and personal-physiological vocabulary is mostly represented by historicisms, historicisms also prevail in scientific and technical vocabulary. That economic vocabulary, the vocabulary of culture, upbringing and education, socio-political, as well as the vocabulary of nature, space and time in its mass is represented by archaisms, since the concepts of these groups are rarely subject to complete disappearance and continue to exist in the language in their new form, which is represented synonymous words. Also, most of the obsolete phraseological units belong specifically to archaisms, since the metaphor of a language is rarely subject to disappearance.
As for the archaic vocabulary. then it, in turn, can be classified according to the following premise. Consider the typology of obsolete vocabulary according to which aspect of the word is obsolete. So, modern linguists distinguish the following types of archaisms:
1. Lexical - the word itself has become obsolete, since its phonetic-letter composition has disappeared from use and has been replaced by a new word that has a completely different, unlike the original, phonetic composition. For example, eye - eye, mouth - lips, cheeks -cheeks,ramena - shoulders.
2. Phonetic - in connection with historical transformations in phonetics, derivatology and grammar, the sound image of the word has changed, which is also reflected in its spelling. This aspect was influenced by: the termination of the law of the open syllable, the development of full vowel, a change in the pronunciation of vowels, a combination of hard and soft consonants, the degree of hardness, the influence of affricates, etc. For example, numer - number, hospital - hospital, city - city, shore - coast, head - head, mammal - milk, gold - gold. Many phonetic archaisms have become expressive means of a poetic text.
3. Derivational or derivational - due to changes in the means of word formation, for example, the obsolescence of a suffix or prefix. For example, flirt - flirt, fisherman - fisherman, museum - museum.
4. Grammatical - the word has lost some forms, which has changed the paradigmatic composition. For example , fun - fun,cool - cool.
5. Semantic - the word exists in the modern language, but has lost one or more meanings. For example, article- (in the 18-19 centuries it was used to designate an article, as a borrowing from French) - one of the official parts of speech used as part of a noun phrase to express a number of linguistic meanings, including the category of certainty / uncertainty in relation to the field of knowledge of the speaker / the writer and addressee of the speech (in the modern sense of the word).
However, different linguists have classified archaisms and historicisms in different ways, there is still no consensus on this matter, therefore the issue of typology remains debatable at the moment. In addition to the main ones mentioned above, Dmitry Nikolaevich Shmelev identifies partial archaisms and exoticisms, Oleg Evgenievich Voronichev supplements the typology with proper lexical and lexico-semantic historicisms. Elena Innokentievna Dibrova proposes to take into account the following word-formation feature, on the basis of which she expands the classification: she distinguishes between derivational archaisms and historicisms single-rooted and multi-rooted. So, for example, those archaisms that have changed their root, due to the historical development of the language, are called heterogeneous: palm - hand, head - head. Single-rooted ones include those that have retained the old root, but have changed the suffix, prefix, inflection, etc.
In the development of the language, it is necessary to distinguish 3 temporal stages of vocabulary obsolescence:
1) Pre-Soviet (examples: boyar, veche, governor, rack, clerk, bondage, localism, settlement, smerd, serf, neck, head, right hand, hand, camisole, letnik, buffoon). As we can see, most of the words belong to the so-called Slavicisms and existed in the historical stages of the existence of Kievan Rus and the period of feudal fragmentation. Most of the vocabulary, which either completely disappeared from the language stock of native speakers, or found synonyms and moved into the marked category, was used to refer to the disappeared estates, household items, household utensils, clothing, as well as manifestations of the economic structure, management and names of body parts. So, for example, “smerd” or “kholop”, which are used to designate categories of peasants of different degrees of dependence, disappeared along with a change in the social structure of society. Such archaisms as head - head (the change occurred, first of all, at the phonetic level with the development of full voice), hand - palm (here we see the phenomenon of prostheses) changed their sound with the transformation of the language.
2) Soviet (examples: policeman, tenth, police officer, senate, lordship, uniform, maiden, uncle, maid, lorgnette, imperial, tavern, mernik, nikolaevka, span, batman, cavalry guard). At this stage, the vocabulary, which is the realities of both Tsarist Russia and the USSR, has undergone a redistribution. It was at the Soviet stage of the development of the language that dictionaries were replenished with historicisms and archaisms. First of all, this was due to the October Revolution of 1917, after which there were significant changes in the lexical composition of the language and updating the rules of grammar. Then a new replenishment occurred in the post-war period. For example, the Red Army, Red Army soldier, red, political officer, armored train, Gulag, People's Commissariat, Council of People's Commissars, MTS (Motor and Tractor Station), shock work, virgin lands, reading room, seven-year plan.
3) Modern stage. At the present stage of vocabulary passivation, most of the Soviet neoplasms, which disappeared from reality along with the collapse of the USSR, became historicisms. For example, Octobrist, Komsomolets, Country of Soviets, Leninists, Khrushchev, party committee, party bureau, Komsomol organizer, gkchpist. Thus, it was the vocabulary of the political and military sphere that underwent significant changes.
At all stages of transformations in the lexical and phraseological composition of the language, speech was updated, replenished with new words and freed from those that had lost touch with reality. However, one should not forget that the processes of transition of words into dictionaries of active and passive vocabulary are mobile. Neologisms eventually become part of a neutral vocabulary, and historicisms with archaisms, due to circumstances, are capable of being revived in their original form, either by acquiring a new connotation or returning in the form of an author's trope. Moreover, the linguist Z. F. Belyanskaya notes that attributing marked vocabulary to a passive dictionary is initially wrong, since archaisms, historicisms and other specific categories of words are just manifestations of special vocabulary, but they need to be equalized with neutral vocabulary. “The fuzzy distinction between the phenomena of language and speech affected Leonid Arkadyevich Bulakhovsky’s assignment of words of special use, archaisms, neologisms, dialectisms and many borrowings to the passive vocabulary of the language, and Alexander Alexandrovich Reformatsky also included expressive expressions.” (Belyanskaya Zinaida Fedorovna. Outdated vocabulary of the modern Russian language (historicism): Dis. Candidate of Philology. Sciences. L., 1998. 201 p.). If the situation with historicisms is relatively clear, then the attribution of archaisms to passive vocabulary is still a debatable issue of modern linguistics. Also, the proof of the problem of attributing some archaisms and historicisms to passive vocabulary, according to Belyanskaya, is the use of such words in an official business style. We often meet in this or that documentation: the undersigned, the deed, this year, attached to this, the deed. However, these "clericalisms" do not carry any expressive and stylistic coloring, but are part of a special vocabulary inherent in the official business style. Despite the narrow scope of use, this fact should not be omitted when considering the very concept of "active and passive vocabulary".
1.2 Spheres of use of archaic vocabulary
Let us turn to the consideration of the phenomenon of obsolete vocabulary in literary works. Writers and poets of different eras addressed the use of this category of the lexical stock of the language. We meet historicisms and archaisms both in Pushkin, Zhukovsky, Lermontov, Gogol, Turgenev, Sholokhov, Tolstoy, Dostoevsky and others, and in the work of modern writers. So, for example, Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin and Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov often resorted to the use of words that are part of the Old Church Slavonic language to maintain the civic-patriotic pathos of their works.
"Her chela I remember the cover
And eyes bright as heaven.
But I delved into her conversations a little.
I was embarrassed by the strict beauty
Her chela, calm mouth and eyes,
And full of shrines words».
(A.S. Pushkin. Works in three volumes. Volume 2 St. Petersburg: Golden Age, Diamant, 1997)
1. Chelo - -a, mm. chela, chel, chelam, cf. (obsolete high). Same as forehead. High h. 4 Beat with a forehead (old L - 1) to whom, bow low to the ground. Beat the boyar with the forehead; 2) to whom, to thank. Beat with a forehead for help, for protection; 3) to whom, to bring a gift, gifts. Beat with a brow with silver, sables; 4) to whom, to ask for something. Beat with the brow of the sovereign for protection; 5) to whom to complain to whom. To beat with a forehead on the offender. (Ozhegov S. I., Shvedova N. Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997, vol. 4, p. 223)
2. Eye - -a, pl. eyes, eyes (obsolete and high) and (old) tow, tow, cf. (obsolete and high). Same as eye (in 1 value). Sees about., Yes, the tooth is numb (last about the impossibility of getting what seems affordable). O. for O., a tooth is a tooth (about those who take revenge, forgetting nothing, not forgiving). * In the blink of an eye (book) - in an instant, instantly, immediately. (Ozhegov S. I., Shvedova N. Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997, vol. 3, p. 126)
3. Mouth - mouth, mouth (obsolete). Mouth, lips. Close, open at. Kiss on the mouth. Truth speaks through the mouth of a baby (ate). On the lips of all (many) (book). Everyone talks, everyone discusses. The name of a popular singer is on everyone's lips. I’ll take into account whom (book) - I’m ready to say, pronounce. The confession was on his lips. From whose mouth (learn, hear) (book) - hear from someone. From the lips of the father to know the sad news. Firsthand (learn, hear) (book) - directly from the one who is better informed than others. From mouth to mouth to convey what (book) - to report from one to another. In the mouth, whose put (any words, thoughts) (book) - to force to speak on one's own behalf, on one's own behalf. The writer put his thoughts into the mouth of the hero. With your lips and honey to drink - it is said in the meaning. it would be nice if you were right, if your assumptions came true. (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language. 4th ed., M., 1997, V. 4, S. 132)
4. Beauty - -s, f. 1. Same as beauty (in 1 and 2 values) (obsolete). In all its glory (in all its splendor, beauty, and also ironically: with all its flaws, in all its ugliness). For beauty (to be beautiful; simple.). 2. what. Decoration, glory of something (high). K. and the pride of science. ((Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, T. 2, P. 97)
5. Look - -a, m. The same as the look (in 1 and 2 meanings). Fix your eyes somewhere. Turn your gaze to someone. Affectionate gaze. (Ozhegov S. I., Shvedova N. Yu. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, T. 1, S. 141)
6. Words - -her, -esam (obsolete and ironic). Words, speech. His promises are empty. Weaving of words (about wordy and meaningless speaking). (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, T. 3, S. 219)
However, it goes without saying that historical novels and stories are most saturated with historicism and archaism, since the marked vocabulary conveys the spirit of the era in the best possible way, reflects life realities, and immerses the reader into the atmosphere of the described event. If in purely historical, scientific works obsolete vocabulary performs a nominative function, then in works of art the function of such vocabulary is already defined as nominative-stylistic, since it serves not only to give a clear definition of the concept, but also creates a certain color of the era. Also, obsolete words can perform a stylistic function proper, that is, they can serve as expressive means of a work, be an auxiliary means for giving the text a special patriotic sound, solemn fullness. Often used in high style genres.
"Arise, prophet, and see, and heed,
Fulfill my will
And, bypassing the seas and lands,
Burn people's hearts with the verb." (A.S. Pushkin. Works in three volumes. Volume 2. St. Petersburg: Golden Age, Diamant, 1997)
Moreover, archaisms in works of art are used most often phonetic, lexical or derivational, to a lesser extent semantic. Historicisms are used in novels of the historical, adventure, and military genres. An example is the novel by Alexei Nikolaevich Tolstoy "Peter I":
« Two white rynds with axes on their shoulders stood at two doors, inaudibly shifting". (Alexey Tolstoy. Collected works in eight volumes. "Pravda", Moscow. 1972, Vol. 7.)
Rynda, m. In Russia in the 15th-17th centuries: a warrior of the court guard. ((Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
Historicisms and archaisms are also found in the names: "White Guard" by Mikhail Bulgakov, "Executor" by Konissky, "Old World Landowners" by Gogol, "Warriors" by Yugov, "City of Peter" by Druzhinin, "Virgin Soil Upturned" by Mikhail Sholokhov, etc.
Thus, archaic vocabulary is widely applicable in all functional styles of speech, but most of all in artistic ones. But also in journalistic and official business. It occurs least of all in colloquial, and then usually, as an example of a language game.
Historicisms and archaisms are used to stylize an era, often in describing interiors, portraits, and everyday life.
An example is an excerpt from Mikhail Sholokhov's novel The Quiet Flows the Don:
one. " From that time on, he was rarely seen in the farm, he did not even go to the Maidan. He lived in his kuren, on the outskirts of the Don, as a biryuk. Gutara about him on the farm wonderfullyme. The children who grazed the calves behind the drive told that they saw how Prokofy in the evenings, when the dawns wither, carried his wife in his arms to the Tatar, azhnik, mound. He planted it there on the top of the mound, with its back to the porous stone, worn down by centuries, sat next to it, and for a long time they looked at the steppe. They looked until the dawn was dying, and then Prokofy wrapped his wife in a zipun and carried her home in his arms. The farm was lost in conjectures, looking for an explanation for such outlandish acts, the women had no time to look for conversations. They also spoke differently about Prokofy's wife: some claimed that she was a hitherto unseen beauty, others - on the contrary. Everything was decided after the most desperate of the women, the zhalmerka Mavra, ran to Prokofy as if for fresh sourdough. Prokofy climbed into the cellar for sourdough, and during this time Mavra saw that the Turkish woman Prokofy had caught was the last of the worthless ones.. . ". (Mikhail Sholokhov, collected works in eight volumes. Moscow. Pravda. 1980, Volume 1.)
1. Farm - a. pl. -a, -ov, m. 1. Separate land plot with the owner's estate. Check out x. 2. In the southern regions: a peasant settlement, a village. || skillful. farm, -oka, m. (to 1 enach.). || adj. hu-torskby, th, th. (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
2. Maidan -a, m. In Ukraine and in the southern regions of Russia: market, market square. || adj. maidan, th, th. (Ozhegov S. I., Shvedova N. Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
3. Kuren-ya, m. 1. The same as a hut (reg.). 2. On the Don and Kuban: a hut, a house. 3. In the old days: a separate part of the Zaporozhye Cossack army, as well as its camp. || adj. smoked, -th, -th (to 3 digits). K. ataman. Choose a smoker (n.). (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
4. Otshib -a, m;. on the outskirts (colloquial) - away from others. Out of the way hut. To live on the outskirts (also trans.: alone, not with others). (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
Biryuk-a, m. 1. Lone wolf (region). 2. trans. An unsociable and gloomy person (colloquial). Watch with a biryuk. || adj. biryu-chi, -ya, -ye (to 1 value).
5. (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
6. Run-a, m. A fenced side village street, a road along which a herd is being driven. || adj. running, th, th. (Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997)
For research work in the field of literary criticism, folk poetic texts, songs, thoughts and epics, chronicles and words, clerical documents of the period of feudalism and tsarist Russia will provide rich material. In cooperation with historians and archaeologists, you can get interesting information from the field of ethnography, folklore and cultural studies.
Part II. Historicisms and archaisms in Sergei Yesenin's story "Yar"
2.1 Archaisms and historicisms in Sergei Yesenin's story "Yar"
The prose of Sergei Yesenin is little known to a wide range of readers and serves more as an object of study for philologists and literary critics. The work "Yar" was created by the author in 1915 and is dedicated to the native village of the writer Konstantinovo. First published a year later. It is this story that we have chosen as demonstrative material for the study of the functionality of archaic vocabulary and historicisms in a literary work, since, in our opinion, it is a good example of such a work.
The study analyzed 230 language units, most of which are archaisms. Some of the words are recorded in a dictionary compiled by Yesenin's sister, Alexandra Alexandrovna Yesenina, first published in the Collected Works in 5 volumes. T. 4. M .: Goslitizdat, 1962, p. 304--310. Some archaisms remained in the speech of native speakers at the level of the local dialect. (Yesenin S. A. Collected works in 5 vols. T. 4. M .: Goslitizdat, 1962, p. 319)
Next, we turn to the typification of archaisms by class. The largest number of archaisms and historicisms in this work refers to everyday vocabulary, as well as the vocabulary of nature, space and time. Many of them denote positions that existed at the beginning of the 20th century, items of clothing, agricultural implements, natural phenomena. There are also historicisms for the designation of household items, those that relate directly to housing or are associated with housekeeping and the work of rural residents. So, for example, in chapter 68 we meet:
“Karev put on a leather jacket, gave Philip a rope to cover himself, and drove to Chukhlinka.”
There are immediately 2 historicisms related to household items:
1. Veretier- a large tarpaulin on which grain is dried in the sun, and carts with sacks of bread are covered with it in bad weather.
2. Kozhan(obsolete) - men's leather oilcloth coat.
As for the distribution of archaisms by type, according to the linguistic aspect, only a few have a phonetic aspect as their basis: tsubitsy - lapwings, chimerika - hellebore, chrestets - sacrum, zherlika - zherlitsa. "Look, what serious- said, lisping, the deacon, - you strive for everything in a trap no worse than our priest, and look at the cosmos you will cling to. (ch. 17)
1. serious- serious.
Features of such pronunciation can be explained by the presence of territorial dialects. This is also connected with the Old Russian period of the existence of the Old Slavonic language and the concept of “palatalization”.
Most of the archaisms are lexical: “My lodge is not far away. I am only wolves tudylicha beat." (ch. 48)
1. Tudylich- in that place, in that direction; or -- not now, not now.
"At dawn, bright, colorful tug, women and girls stretched across the meadow with bodies and buckets and merrily sang songs. (ch. 78)
1. Guzhom- in a string, single file or crowd.
An example of word-formation archaism is the following sentence: “ Pegasus the stallion threw back his unchained legs, bared his teeth and twirled his ears. (ch. 43)
1. Pegasus- piebald.
If we consider archaisms and historicisms in the work from the point of view of correlating them to certain lexical and grammatical categories, it turns out that most of the obsolete vocabulary is nouns (164 language units), a sufficient number of adverbs (29 language units), as well as verbs ( 32 language units).
According to semantic features, all nouns can be divided into several categories. First of all, these are proper and common nouns. So, we attribute to our own: Anisim, Aksinya (diminutive Aksyutka), Lympiada, Afonyushka (joking Afonka), Fetinya, Egoriy, Kuzka, Ivan Yaklich, Mikolin day, Ramenki, Akulina, Epishka, Chukhlinka, Fedot, Prokhor, Yen, Prosinya, Maryana, Martha (Marfunka).
Common nouns, in turn, are of 4 types: concrete, abstract, real and collective.
Specific in the piece: bochag, beam, lingonberry, buchen, howl, winding, vyben, gaitan, gas, bottom,katnik, konurka,horse, korotayka, otava, rein, potozhok, pestun, outskirts, reap, clerk, deacon, centenary, tenth etc.
Abstract is almost non-existent.
Substances include: lushnik, otava, putvo.
There are also very few collective ones, only for the designation of the names of berries: a drunkard, a drunkard, a drunkard.
An interesting example can be phraseological units that have fallen into disuse: for example, blooming lips - covered with a rash.
1.2 The functions of archaisms and historicisms in S.A. Yesenin "Yar"
What is the purpose of historicism and archaism in this work? First of all, they create the atmosphere of the historical era of the early 20th century, they color the life of the village especially well, because it is thanks to the many colorful archaic and colloquial expressions that the reader can be transported to the countryside from speech, descriptions of life, interior, rural, typically Russian landscapes, understand what the author wanted to write. All archaic expressions in the work perform a nominal-stylistic function. In the very first chapter at the beginning we meet:
"From chapygi two hares emerged with a snort and, blowing up the snow, ran to boundary.
A wagon train creaked along the calico road; under obroti fluttered vakhiri, and the horses, throwing the cud, pricked up their ears.
Lights gleamed ominously from the mesh bushes and, hiding, went out.
Wolves, - a high shadow swayed in the undermoon.
Yes," coughed up voices noisily. In the quiet noise of pine needles, a cloudy ushuk ice barrier..."
1. Mezha- the border between land plots, which is a narrow strip.
2. Chapyga(chapyzhnik) - a frequent shrub, an impenetrable thicket.
3. Obrot- halter, horse bridle without a bit, with one reason for a leash.
4. Vyakhir- Mesh purse for hay.
5. Ushuk-- rustle.
If the first 4 language units are archaisms, then ushuk- an example of historicism, since this word completely disappeared from literary speech and remained only in literary works, as a means of creating color, described by the author of the era.
Some words for designating positions, including church ranks, have also gone out of use, but they cannot be unambiguously attributed to passive vocabulary, since they have lost only part of their semantic meaning. For example, the word " clerk". The dictionary gives us the following definition: “(from Gr. diakonos - a servant) - in the Russian state until the 18th century. head and clerk of the office of various departments. Supervised the work of institutions of local government (moving huts) and orders (head of orders or their assistants). From the 15th century - landowners. In the XV-XVII centuries. - as part of the duma ranks. (Large legal dictionary. - M .: Infra-M. A. Ya. Sukharev, V. E. Krutskikh, A. Ya. Sukhareva. 2003.) However, this is one of the meanings of the word, which refers to the ancient Russian period of the existence of the Russian language . But a different meaning has been preserved: “(gr. diakonos servant) in the Orthodox Church: a lower servant, a psalm reader. The same as the deacon ”(Dictionary of Foreign Words of the Russian Language). In common parlance, "clerk" refers to any clergyman, especially in rural areas. Also, this word can have a negative connotation if it denotes an ironic attitude towards a not very educated person, or even sometimes in the context you can find a similar designation, which is based on the concept of " hypocrite».
Therefore, if you want to determine the exact semantic load of a word or expression, you must consider it in context.
So, outdated vocabulary in the work of Sergei Yesenin performs several functions at once. He actively uses words that have fallen into disuse or have been preserved at the local level, since he is an unconditionally national, Russian writer, which is reflected in the word, because the study of the vocabulary of the works of a particular writer is directly related to literary analysis. Since it is in the vocabulary that expressive means are hidden that determine the individuality of the work and its value.
Izmail Ivanovich Sreznevsky wrote: Each word is a representative of a concept that was among the people: what was expressed in a word was in life; what was not in life, for that there was no word. Every word for a historian is a witness, a monument, a factRthe life of the people, the more important, the more important the concept it expresses. Complementing one another, they together represent the system of concepts of the people, convey the true story of the life of the people"(Sreznevsky 1887, 35).
Therefore, we can distinguish the following stylistic and stylistic functions of archaisms and historicisms in S. Yesenin's story "Yar":
1. reflection of the language style of the era;
2. displaying the linguistic features of a particular area (the village of Konstantinovo, the Ryazan region, the Ryazan group of South Russian dialects). According to the typology of V.G. Orlova, who found reflection in the joint work with the dialectologist K.F., Zakharova “Dialect division of the Russian language”. (K.F. Zakharova, V.G. Orlova. Dialect division of the Russian language. M .: Nauka, 1970, p. 176), as well as the Atlas of Russian dialects of the central regions south of Moscow / Ed. V.G. Orlova. (1964)
3. stylization - recreating a living spoken language
4. expressive-emotional connotation (disparaging, slangy, ironic, playful, offensive, vulgar vocabulary)
Some of the historicisms that were used by Sergei Yesenin in the work, at the time of writing, had not yet completely lost their meaning (for example, centenary, clerk), but are perceived as such only by a modern reader, that is, a reader of the 21st century.
Speaking directly about the role of obsolete vocabulary in the poet's work, it should be noted that if archaisms, first of all, serve as a means of stylization, then historicisms perform mainly a nominative function, since sometimes it is impossible to define the described phenomenon, object, sensation in a different way. , since there are simply no synonyms that accurately convey what the author means.
« Zubok brought?
Brought.
Pop glanced at the juicy ham, just taken out of the brine, and poked at the redberry love finger.
Good." (ch. 16)
1. Zubok- a gift for a newborn.
2. Lyubovina- lean part of salted pork meat.
Grigory Osipovich Vinokur notes: “ For a whole century, we have been competing in realistic fiction with two main styles: 1. Imitating and 2. Non-imitating. This is the new contradiction that realism has brought with it."(Vinokur 1991: 417.). The distinguishing feature of the "non-imitating" style is a sharp distinction between the speech of the author and the character, which can be replaced by the fact that the character speaks in the author's way, and not vice versa. The differential feature of the “imitating” style is the inevitable merging of the author and the character in character speech, “necessarily associated with the “stucco”, “ornamental” sense of the language, and not with its strict geometric pattern”.
Thus, Sergei Yesenin writes in the so-called "imitating" style, however, being himself a native of the village, he takes into account those features that he himself absorbed in childhood, he creates not even a historical story, but "a story from Russian folk life." If, all of a sudden, his heroes spoke in a literary solemn high language, it would look simply clumsy, would not be combined with the events that are reflected in the story and instead of a realistic serious work that allows us to talk about Russian customs, mentality, finally, following after Lossky “about the mysterious Russian soul”, we would read semi-humorous, buffoonish, probably even offensive, similar to Vozny’s speech in Ivan Kotlyarevsky’s Natalka-Poltavka.
Conclusion
Thus, our study showed that in the story of Sergei Yesenin "Yar" there are a large number of archaisms and historicisms (230 language units). Of these, 71% of the total number of all historicisms and archaisms falls on the lexical and grammatical category of nouns, 14% on adverbs, 13% on verbs and their forms, and the remaining 3% are adjectives and phraseological units. From these data, we can conclude that most of the historicisms and archaisms make up a group of nouns, least of all Sergei Yesenin refers to adjectives.
The use of obsolete words in this work is more than justified, if not even necessary, since the use of lexical units of the passive vocabulary of the language is one of the most important techniques in the work we are considering. Archaisms and historicisms are used in the speech of the characters of the story, as well as in lyrical digressions when describing landscapes and interiors. Obsolete words in a work of art are intended to reflect the realities and concepts of the era referred to in the text.
Among the archaisms, we have identified five groups. These are actually lexical, semantic, phonetic, derivational (or derivational) and grammatical archaisms.
Most of the historicisms and archaisms, if they are not phonetic or derivational, are not clear to the modern reader, and it is necessary to refer to the dictionary to find out their meaning. For the convenience of readers, the sister of the poet A.A. Yesenina created a dictionary of obsolete vocabulary and dialectisms, which is published in the appendix to the editions of the story. Also in modern editions you can find its expanded and supplemented version.
Summing up the study of the features of the use of obsolete vocabulary in Sergei Yesenin's story "Yar", we note that the linguistic basis of the story is a living, folk, changing Russian language in its constant development. Skillfully woven into the canvas, colloquial words, archaic forms, historicisms, convey the flavor of the era, as well as the life of the peasants. S.A. Yesenin occupies a special place in Russian literature, not only as a singer of Russian nature, love and the so-called "eternal themes", but also as a great connoisseur of the psychology of a villager, life, and the era that the poet and prose writer captured with his genius on paper and for centuries .
List of used literature
1.Efremova, T.F. New dictionary of the Russian language. Explanatory and derivational: St. 136000 dictionary. st., ok. 250000 semantics. units: [In 2 tons]. -- M.: Rus. yaz., 2000.
2. Edneralova N.G. "Obsolete vocabulary of the Russian language of the newest period, Voronezh, 2003, p. 326
3. Belyanskaya Z.F. Outdated vocabulary of the modern Russian language (historicisms): Dis. cand. philol. Sciences. L., 1998. 201 p.
4. A.S. Pushkin. Works in three volumes. Volume 2 St. Petersburg: The Golden Age, Diamant, 1997
5. Ozhegov S.I., Shvedova N.Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language. 4th ed., M., 1997
6. Alexei Tolstoy. Collected Works in eight volumes. Pravda, Moscow. 1972. Vol. 7, 8.
7. Mikhail Sholokhov, collected works in eight volumes. Moscow. "Truth". 1980 Volume 1.
8. S.A. Yesenin Collected works in 5 volumes. T. 4. M .: Goslitizdat, 1962, p. 319
9. Vinogradov V.V. Lexicology and lexicography: Selected works / Ed. ed. V.G. Kostomarov. Moscow: Nauka, 1977.
10. Sreznevsky I.I. M. 1887, 35.
11. Big legal dictionary. -- M.: Infra-M. AND I. Sukharev, V.E. Krutskikh, A.Ya. Sukharev. 2003
12. K.F. Zakharova, V.G. Orlov. Dialect division of the Russian language. M.: Nauka, 1970, p. 176
14. Atlas of Russian dialects of the central regions south of Moscow / Ed. V.G. Orlova., M, 1964
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