Vertical mobility horizontal mobility diagram. social mobility. Mobility vertical and horizontal

The topic of this article is social mobility. This is a very important topic for a sociologist. It is held today at school in the lessons of social studies. After all, knowledge of the society in which we live is necessary for everyone. In our days, when the world is changing very quickly, this is especially true.

Definition

Migration in the broad and narrow senses

Migrations, that is, territorial movements of the population, can also be considered as one of the forms of social mobility. In a broad sense, they are understood as any movements outside the boundaries of a certain territory of its population (usually this territory is a settlement). At the same time, for what purpose and for how long the procedure takes place is immaterial.

However, in popular science and scientific literature, a narrow interpretation of the concept of "migration" is much more often used. According to her, this is a movement that is associated with a change in the place of permanent residence.

Seasonal and pendulum migration

In a broad sense, migration includes, in addition to moving to a permanent place of residence, also seasonal and pendulum migration. The second is the regular movement of people between several (two or more) settlements. However, their place of residence does not change. Such migration is connected with work, rest or study. These are mostly daily trips. Sometimes, however, trips made for a longer period (usually within one week) are also considered as pendulum migrations.

Two important reasons for the sociologist to classify migration

Many features exist to classify migration flows. The most important for the sociologist are the following two:

1. Migration occurring between settlements, the rank of which is different. In some cases, migration is vertical social mobility. This is observed when it is associated with a decrease or increase in the status of a person who has a certain place of residence. In others, it is horizontal (in the event that the move occurs between settlements with the same rank). Today, migration as vertical social mobility is a phenomenon associated mainly with the process of urbanization. After all, moving from villages to cities is a necessary element of this process.

2. External and internal migration. This division is considered rather conditional. Migration human mobility is a vast phenomenon that cannot be rigorously classified. In official statistics, internal migration is usually understood as the movement of people to a new place of residence, carried out within the same country. Under the external means moving to a sufficiently long or permanent residence in another country. However, sometimes, depending on the goals pursued by a particular sociological study, migrations between different subjects of the federation are also considered as external.

Social mobility in Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries

Throughout the history of the development of our state, the nature of the mobility of its population has changed. These changes can be recorded quite accurately from the beginning of the 18th century. Russia, like any other semi-agrarian and agrarian society, was characterized until the end of the 19th century by rather low rates of vertical mobility. During these years, the basis of the structure of society was made up of estates. The boundaries of class groups, however, were at that time more permeable than in Europe during the time of classical feudalism. The policy of absolutism pursued by the state contributed to this. Although the outflow was hardly noticeable in relation to the total number of the peasantry due to the high proportion of its representatives in the population of the country, the rates of mobility were very high in relation to the urban estates and the nobility. By paying the tax rate and the ransom, people from the peasantry quite easily got into the urban estates, they could advance in the social hierarchy up to the merchants of the first guild. The ranks of the service nobility also replenished very intensively. From all the estates of Russia, its representatives were nominated - from the clergy, merchants, philistines, peasants.

The structural mobility of the society of that time (since the time of Peter I, at least) was insignificant. That is, the layers that make up the structure of society remained unchanged. Until the 1870s, only their quantitative ratio changed slightly.

Mobility in the post-Petrine era

Russia during the next 140 years following the reign of Peter I, experienced not only a very intense vertical mobility. The structural social mobility of the society of that time was also significant and took place in several stages. At first (1870-1917), a class of proletariat and industrial bourgeoisie was gradually formed in Russia. After that, mainly from 1930 to 1970, an intensive process of modernization took place. At this time, a structure was being formed that was already close to the corresponding one in industrial and post-industrial societies. The difference was that there was no class of private entrepreneurs. In addition, the sphere in which market relations operated was significantly limited. Since the 1990s, the third stage of structural mobility has begun in our society. It is associated with the formation of a post-industrial society in Russia, which is based on a market economy.

Change in the prestige of professions, high rates of inter- and intra-generational mobility

It was not only the quantitative ratio of different social strata that changed in the process of the structural shifts described above. The relative prestige of certain professions also did not remain unchanged. For example, in the 1930s-1950s, the most prestigious were technical specialties (skilled worker, engineer), in the 1950s-1970s, professions related to science, and from the mid-1980s of the last century, those related to finance and trade. During the entire period, very high rates of intergenerational and intragenerational mobility, as well as a low level of isolation of various professional groups, were observed. This was noted not only by domestic sociologists, but also by Western ones.

Territorial migration at different times

During this period, the rates of territorial mobility were also extremely high (both horizontal - to construction sites and newly developed areas, and vertical - from the village to the city). Migration began to decline only from the mid-1970s. However, since the beginning of the 1990s, growth rates have been observed again. Many people migrate to the regions of the Russian Federation from the former Soviet republics.

The association of individuals on a common social basis in a system of relations regulated by social institutions is called a social group.

Definition 1

Social groups are one of the main components of the social structure. Changing one's position in the social structure by an individual or a group is called social mobility.

Social mobility is divided into vertical (upward and downward) and horizontal, individual and group. Types of social mobility are schematically depicted in Fig. 1:

Definition 2

Horizontal social mobility is usually defined as the transition of an individual or group from one social group to another belonging to the same socio-economic level, without changing their status.

Example 1

Examples of horizontal social mobility are: change of citizenship, place of residence, profession, marital status, political or religious affiliation.

Causes of Horizontal Social Mobility

A person as a social unit in the process of his life cannot be in the same socio-economic status. Growing up, learning, professional activities, family life require individuals to move in society. The constant movement of society leads to a change in social structures, some individuals are displaced, others fill their place.

The main reasons for the need for horizontal mobility are the following:

• Structural changes caused by the development of the economic and political system (for example, the disappearance of certain industries and professions).
• The need for an open structure of society that allows movement from one social group to another.

A change in the importance of a certain class in society can provoke group mobility, when movement through the social structure is carried out not individually, but by a whole social group. The mobility of a society is affected by the composition and density of its population, birth and death rates, and economic conditions. For example, young people are more mobile than older people, and men are more mobile than women. In young societies, the density of filling of social groups is low, which also contributes to the mobility of its individuals.

Remark 1

Types of horizontal social mobility are divided into main and non-main forms. Major forms define most societies in any era. Non-principal forms of mobility are characteristic of limited types of society.

The role of horizontal social mobility

Horizontal social mobility promotes structural changes in society. The impact of social mobility can be both positive and negative:

• The development of the mechanism of selection of individuals of society can be attributed to positive factors. Through the channels of mobility, social institutions fill in the gaps in the necessary groups and strata of society.
• The processes of social mobility can provoke such negative consequences as the appearance of marginals in society and its lumpenization.

The high social mobility of society is rather a positive indicator of it. Thanks to mobility, society becomes more open, available for movement in its structure to individuals with high abilities and skills. The individual's desire for well-being stimulates the need to develop his best personal qualities.

2.2 Structural mobility

1. Open and closed mobility

5.1 Intergenerational mobility

7. Migration

7.1 Labor migration

Conclusion

Introduction

Sociology as a whole (i.e. general sociology) is a science that studies the relationship between groups of people occupying different positions in society, taking unequal participation in economic, social and political life, differing not only in level, but also in the source of their income, structure consumption, way, quality and style of life, as well as the structure of value orientations, motives and type of behavior.

A society is a combination of all ways of interaction and forms of unification of people, having a common territory, common cultural values ​​and social norms. Society is a term denoting the collectivist integrity of the population of a particular country.

People are in constant motion, and society is in development. The totality of social movements of people in society, i.e. changes in one's status is called social mobility.

Social mobility refers to the movement of an individual or group up, down, or horizontally. Social mobility is characterized by the direction, variety and distance of social movements of people in society (individually and in groups).

1. Vertical and horizontal mobility

The following types of social mobility are distinguished: vertical and horizontal mobility.

The movement up and down is called vertical mobility, it is of two types: downward (from top to bottom) and upward (from bottom to top). Horizontal mobility is such a movement in which an individual changes his social position or profession to an equivalent one. A special variety is represented by intergenerational, or intergenerational, mobility. It refers to the change in the status of children compared to the status of parents. Intergenerational mobility was studied by A.V. Kirch, and in the global historical aspect - A. Pirenne and L. Febvre. P. Sorokin was one of the founders of the theories of social stratification and social mobility. Foreign sociologists usually link these two theories.

There are two main types of social mobility - intergenerational and intragenerational, and two main types - vertical and horizontal. They, in turn, break up into subspecies and subtypes.

Vertical mobility means moving from one stratum to another. Depending on the direction of movement, one speaks of upward mobility (social ascent, upward movement) and downward mobility (social descent, downward movement). There is a certain asymmetry between ascent and descent: everyone wants to go up and no one wants to go down the social ladder. As a rule, ascent is a voluntary phenomenon, and descent is forced.

Promotion is an example of upward mobility of an individual, dismissal, demotion is an example of downward mobility. Vertical mobility is a person's change during life of a high status to a low one, or vice versa. For example, the movement of a person from the status of a plumber to the position of president of a corporation, as well as the reverse movement, is an example of vertical mobility.

Horizontal mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level. An example is the movement from an Orthodox to a Catholic religious group, from one citizenship to another, from one family (parental) to another (one's own, newly formed), from one profession to another. Such movements occur without a noticeable change in social position in the vertical direction. Horizontal mobility implies a change by a person during his life of one status to another, which is approximately equivalent. Let's say a person was first a plumber and then became a carpenter.

Geographical mobility is a variation of horizontal mobility. It does not imply a change in status or group, but a movement from one place to another while maintaining the same status. An example is international and interregional tourism, moving from a city to a village and back, moving from one enterprise to another.

If a change of status is added to a change of place, then geographic mobility turns into migration. If a villager comes to the city to visit relatives, then this is geographic mobility. If he moved to the city for permanent residence and got a job here, then this is migration.

2. Individual and group mobility

Classification of social mobility can be carried out according to other criteria. So, for example, they distinguish between individual mobility, when movements down, up or horizontally occur in an individual independently of others, and group mobility, when movements occur collectively, for example, after a social revolution, the old ruling class cedes its positions to the new ruling class. Individual mobility is inherent in democratic civilized states. Group mobility is a painful process, a consequence of social catastrophes.

2.1 Spontaneous and organized mobility

On other grounds, mobility may be classified, say, as spontaneous or organized. An example of spontaneous mobility is the movement of residents of the near abroad to large cities of Russia for the purpose of earning money. Organized mobility (moving a person or entire groups up, down or horizontally) is controlled by the state. These movements can be carried out: a) with the consent of the people themselves, b) without their consent. An example of organized voluntary mobility in Soviet times is the movement of young people from different cities and villages to Komsomol construction sites, the development of virgin lands, etc. An example of organized involuntary mobility is the repatriation (resettlement) of Chechens and Ingush during the war against German Nazism.

2.2 Structural mobility

Structural mobility should be distinguished from organized mobility. It is caused by changes in the structure of the national economy and occurs against the will and consciousness of individual individuals. For example, the disappearance or reduction of industries or professions leads to the displacement of large masses of people.

3. System of indicators of social mobility

Social mobility can be measured using two metrics. In the first system, the unit of account is the individual, in the second, the status. Consider the first system first.

The volume of mobility is understood as the number of individuals who have moved up the social ladder in a vertical direction over a certain period of time. If the volume is calculated by the number of displaced individuals, then it is called absolute, and if the ratio of this number over the entire population, then the relative volume is indicated as a percentage.

The total volume, or scale, of mobility determines the number of movements across all strata together, and the differentiated volume determines the number of movements across individual strata, layers, and classes. The fact that in an industrial society two-thirds of the population is mobile refers to the total volume, and 37% of the children of workers who have become employees belongs to the differentiated volume.

The scale of social mobility is defined as the percentage of those who have changed, in comparison with their fathers, their social status.

The change in mobility for individual layers is described by two indicators. The first is the coefficient of mobility of leaving the social stratum. It shows, for example, how many sons of skilled workers became intellectuals or peasants. The second is the coefficient of mobility of entry into the social stratum, indicating from which strata, for example, the stratum of intellectuals is replenished. It reveals the social origin of people.

The degree of mobility in a society is determined by two factors: the range of mobility in a society and the conditions that allow people to move.

The range of mobility (amount mobiliti) that characterizes a given society depends on how many different statuses exist in it. The more statuses, the more opportunity a person has to move from one status to another.

In traditional society, the number of high-status positions remained approximately constant, so there was a moderate downward mobility of offspring from high-status families. Feudal society is characterized by a very small number of vacancies for high positions for those who had a low status. Some sociologists believe that, most likely, there was no upward mobility.

Industrial society has expanded the range of mobility. It is characterized by a much larger number of different statuses. The first decisive factor in social mobility is the level of economic development. During periods of economic depression, the number of high-status positions decreases, while low-status positions expand, so downward mobility dominates. It intensifies in those periods when people lose their jobs and at the same time new layers enter the labor market. On the contrary, during periods of active economic development, many new high-status positions appear: Increased demand for workers to fill them is the main reason for upward mobility.

The main trend in the development of an industrial society is that it simultaneously increases wealth and the number of high-status positions, which in turn leads to an increase in the size of the middle class, whose ranks are replenished by people from lower strata.

4. Open and closed mobility

The second factor of social mobility is the historical type of stratification. Caste and estate societies restrict social mobility by imposing severe restrictions on any change in status.

Closed mobility is characteristic of totalitarian regimes, which create significant obstacles to social movements. If most of the statuses in a society are ascribed or prescribed, then the range of mobility in it is much lower than in a society based on individual achievement. In a pre-industrial society, upward mobility was not great, since legal laws and traditions practically closed the access of peasants to the estate of landowners. There is a well-known medieval saying: "Once a peasant, forever a peasant."

In an industrial society, which sociologists refer to as a type of open society, individual merits and achieved status are valued above all. Open mobility is characteristic of democratic societies and means that there are no legislative obstacles in the process of social movements. In such a society, the level of social mobility is quite high.

Sociologists also note the following pattern: the wider the opportunities for moving up, the stronger people believe in the availability of vertical mobility channels for them, and the more they believe in this, the more they strive to move up, i.e. the higher the level of social mobility in society. Conversely, in a class society, people do not believe in the possibility of changing their status without having wealth, pedigree or the patronage of the monarch.

When studying social mobility, sociologists pay attention to the following characteristics:

Number and size of classes and status groups;

The amount of mobility of individuals and families from one group to another;

The degree of differentiation of social strata by types of behavior (lifestyle) and the level of class consciousness;

The type or amount of property owned by a person, occupation, as well as the values ​​that determine one or another status;

Distribution of power between classes and status groups. Of the listed criteria, two are especially important: the amount (or amount) of mobility and the differentiation of status groups. They are used to distinguish one type of stratification from another.

Upward movement is mainly due to education, wealth or membership in a political party. Education plays an important role not only in obtaining a higher income or a more prestigious profession: the level of education is one of the hallmarks of belonging to a higher stratum. Wealth is a hallmark of status in the higher strata. American society is a stratified system with open classes. Although it is not a classless society, it retains the differentiation of people according to social status. It is an open class society in the sense that a person does not remain all his life in the class in which he was born.

5. The second system of indicators of mobility

The second system of indicators of mobility, where the status or step in the social hierarchy is taken as the unit of account. In this case, social mobility is understood as a change by an individual (group) of one status to another, located vertically or horizontally.

The volume of mobility is the number of people who have changed their previous status to another one down, up or horizontally. Ideas about the movement of people up, down and across the social pyramid describe the direction of mobility. Varieties of mobility are described by the typology of social movements. The measure of mobility is indicated by the step and volume of social movements.

Mobility distance is the number of steps that individuals managed to climb or had to descend. The normal distance is considered to be moving one or two steps up or down. Most social transitions happen this way. Abnormal distance - an unexpected rise to the top of the social ladder or fall to its bottom.

The unit of mobility distance is the movement step. To describe the step of social movements, the concept of status is used: moving from a lower to a higher status is upward mobility; moving from higher to lower status is downward mobility. Movement can be one step (status), two or more steps (statuses) up, down and horizontally. A step can be measured in 1) statuses, 2) generations. Therefore, the following types are distinguished:

intergenerational mobility;

Intragenerational mobility;

Interclass mobility;

Intraclass mobility.

The concept of "group mobility" characterizes a society that is undergoing social changes, where the social significance of an entire class, estate, or stratum rises or falls. For example, the October Revolution led to the rise of the Bolsheviks, who previously did not have a recognized high position, and the Brahmins in ancient India became the highest caste as a result of stubborn struggle, while previously their caste was on the same level as the Kshatriya caste.

5.1 Intergenerational mobility

Intergenerational mobility implies that children reach a higher social position or fall to a lower level than their parents occupied. Example: A miner's son becomes an engineer. Intergenerational mobility is a change in the status of children relative to the status of their fathers. For example, the son of a plumber becomes the president of a corporation, or conversely, the son of the president of a corporation becomes a plumber. Intergenerational mobility is the most important form of social mobility. Its scale indicates the extent to which, in a given society, inequality passes from one generation to another. If intergenerational mobility is low, then this means that inequality has taken root in this society, and a person’s chances to change his fate do not depend on himself, but are predetermined by birth. In the case of significant intergenerational mobility, people achieve a new status through their own efforts, regardless of their origin. The general direction of intergenerational youth mobility is from the group of manual workers to the group of mental workers.

5.2 Intragenerational mobility

Intragenerational mobility takes place where the same individual, beyond comparison with his father, changes social positions several times throughout his life. Otherwise, it is called a social career. Example: a turner becomes an engineer, and then a shop manager, plant director, minister of the engineering industry. The first type of mobility refers to long-term, and the second - to short-term processes. In the first case, sociologists are more interested in interclass mobility, and in the second, the movement from the sphere of physical labor to the sphere of mental labor. Intra-generational mobility depends less on factors of origin in a changing society than in a stable one.

Class immobility occurs when the rank of a social class is reproduced unchanged from generation to generation. Researchers find a high level of class immobility in modern society. The bulk of intra- and intergenerational mobility occurs gradually, without dramatic changes. Only certain individuals rise or fall sharply, for example, outstanding athletes or rock stars.

Stratification symbols also differ in the degree of openness of professional cells for beginners. To a large extent, the social rank of a married woman is determined by the status of her husband, and her mobility is measured by the difference between the professional status of her father and her husband.

Because ascribed traits—sex, race, social class at birth—outweigh individual talent and intelligence in determining the length of education and the type of first job, analysts argue that there is hardly any reason to speak of a truly open class system.

6. Channels of vertical mobility

The most complete description of vertical mobility channels was given by P. Sorokin, who called them "vertical circulation channels". According to Sorokin, since vertical mobility exists to some extent in any society, even in primitive ones, there are no impassable boundaries between strata. Between them there are various "holes", "plays", "membranes" through which individuals move up and down.

Sorokin's special attention was attracted by social institutions - the army, church, school, family, property, which are used as channels of social circulation.

The army functions in this capacity not in peacetime, but in wartime. Large losses among the command staff lead to the filling of vacancies from the lower ranks. In times of war, soldiers advance through talent and bravery. Once promoted, they use the power they gain as a channel for further advancement and wealth accumulation. They have the opportunity to rob, loot, seize trophies, take indemnities, take away slaves, surround themselves with pompous ceremonies, titles, and transfer their power by inheritance.

The Church as a channel of social circulation has moved a large number of people from the bottom to the top of society.

The church was a channel not only for an upward, but also for a downward movement. Thousands of heretics, pagans, enemies of the church were brought to justice, ruined and destroyed. Among them were many kings, dukes, princes, lords, aristocrats and nobles of high ranks.

School. The institutions of upbringing and education, no matter what concrete form they take, have served in all ages as a powerful channel of social circulation. The USA and the USSR belong to societies where schools are available to all its members. In such a society, the "social elevator" moves from the very bottom, passes through all floors and reaches the very top.

The USA and the USSR are the most striking examples of how one can achieve impressive success, become the great industrial powers of the world, adhering to opposite political and ideological values, but equally providing their citizens with equal opportunities to receive an education.

Large competitions for colleges and universities in many countries are explained by the fact that education is the fastest and most accessible channel of vertical mobility.

Ownership is most clearly manifested in the form of accumulated wealth and money. They are one of the simplest and most effective ways of social promotion.

Family and marriage become channels of vertical circulation if representatives of different social strata join the union. In European society, the marriage of a poor, but titled partner with a rich, but not noble, was common. As a result, both moved up the social ladder, getting what they lacked.

7. Migration

Migration is a kind of horizontal mobility. Population migration is the movement of people, usually associated with a change of residence (movement of people from country to country, from district to district, from city to village and vice versa, from city to city, from village to village). It is subdivided into irrevocable (with a final change of permanent place of residence), temporary (resettlement for a sufficiently long, but limited period), seasonal (movement during certain periods of the year), depending on the season (tourism, treatment, study, agricultural work), pendulum - regular movement of the published point and return to it.

Migration is a very broad concept that covers all types of migration processes, i.e. population movements both within one country and between countries - around the world (international migration). Migration can be external (outside the country) and internal. External includes emigration, immigration, and internal - movement from the village to the city, inter-district resettlement, etc. Migration does not always take mass forms. In calm times, it affects small groups or individuals. Their movement occurs, as a rule, spontaneously. Demographers identify two main flows of migration within one country: city-rural and city-city. It has been established that as long as industrialization is going on in the country, people move mainly from the village to the city. Upon its completion, people move from the city to suburban areas and rural areas. An interesting pattern is revealed: migrant flows are directed to those places where social mobility is highest. And one more thing: those who move from city to city arrange their lives easier and achieve greater success than those who move from village to city, and vice versa.

Two types of migration occupy an important place - immigration and emigration. Emigration - leaving the country for permanent residence or long-term residence. Immigration - entry into a given country for permanent residence or long-term residence. Thus, immigrants are moving in, and emigrants are moving out (voluntarily or involuntarily). Emigration reduces the population. If the most capable and qualified people leave, then not only the number, but also the qualitative composition of the population decreases. Immigration increases the population. The arrival of a highly skilled labor force in the country increases the qualitative composition of the population, while the arrival of a low-skilled labor force has the opposite effect.

Thanks to emigration and migration, new cities, countries and states arose. It is known that in cities the birth rate is low and constantly decreasing. Consequently, all large cities, especially cities with millionaires, arose due to immigration.

Emigration is the larger, the less the population has the opportunity to satisfy their needs in their country, including through internal resettlement. The proportions between internal and external migration are determined by the economic situation, the general social background, and the degree of tension in society. Emigration occurs where living conditions worsen and opportunities for upward mobility narrow. The peasants left for Siberia and the Don, where the Cossacks had developed, because of the tightening of serfdom. It was not aristocrats who left Europe, but social outsiders.

Horizontal mobility in such cases acts as a means to solve the problems that arise in the field of vertical mobility. The fugitive serfs who founded the Don merchant class became free and prosperous; raised their political and economic status at the same time. At the same time, their professional status could remain unchanged: the peasants continued to engage in arable farming on the new lands.

7.1 Labor migration

Under labor migration is understood, firstly, the turnover of personnel, i.e. individual movements from one enterprise to another within the same city or region, and secondly, individual and group movements of citizens of one state from one region to another in order to get work and earnings, as well as citizens of different states from one country to another with the same purpose. In the latter case, the term "economic migration" is also used. If a Ukrainian comes to Russia to work, and a Russian goes to work in America, then such movements are called both labor and economic migration.

The differences between these two types of migration are rather vague, but the following circumstance can be taken into account as a conditional criterion. Economic migration should include only such types of horizontal mobility, the reason for which is only the need to earn a living in general or more than in one's own country. It is more correct to refer to labor migration such types of social movements that are caused by a complex of reasons, including, in addition to earnings, the desire to improve working conditions, bring the place of work closer to the place of residence, change the socio-psychological atmosphere that has developed at the previous place of work, improve qualifications, get more interesting and promising work, etc. A variety of labor migration is staff turnover and a broader concept - “labor turnover”.

Labor turnover - individual unorganized movement of workers between enterprises (organizations). One of the forms of movement of labor resources, which manifests itself in the form of dismissals of employees of enterprises, mainly due to their dissatisfaction with any aspects of work or life. This dissatisfaction is formed under the influence of a system of factors of an objective and subjective order.

The scale of labor turnover is characterized by the number of employees who left the enterprises, who terminated the employment contract for a certain range of legal grounds (absolute turnover rates), and the ratio of the number of retired employees to the average number of employees, expressed as a percentage (relative sizes, turnover intensity). Along with organized forms of redistribution of labor resources (organizational recruitment for agricultural resettlement, public calls for youth), labor turnover serves as a channel for the movement of workers between enterprises, industries, regions of the country, professional and qualification groups, i.e. performs certain socio-economic functions.

Staff turnover is a type of horizontal mobility in industry. It is the unorganized movement of workers from one enterprise to another. It is based on the discrepancy or contradiction between the interests of the individual and the ability of the enterprise to realize them. Staff turnover includes all dismissals of employees due to conscription, illness, retirement, as well as dismissals for violations of labor discipline.

Conclusion

For sociology, it is very important to know how people are aware (spontaneously or deliberately) of their social position and how they, by their actions, seek to make adjustments that allow them to change their positions in public life. This awareness is often contradictory, because the goals set by a person, individual layers and groups do not always coincide with objective laws. It is obvious that the limited ability to harmonize subjective aspirations with the objective course of development gives rise to collisions between the personal (group) and the public.

From a sociological point of view, it is important that people's actions to change their social position are associated with the desire to have such market relations that would allow them to take their rightful place in society. However, with great difficulty, they realize that under the new conditions incentives are beginning to operate not just for labor, albeit skilled and high-quality, but for labor, the results of which have been publicly tested on the market.

At the forefront, when assessing one's position, comes the awareness of social guarantees, the actual civil status, the degree of confidence in the current and future social and personal life.

At present, the rural population is growing in the North Caucasus, in the southern regions of the country. At the same time, the situation in the center of the European part remains tense. The issue of creating a mechanism that influences the social behavior of people is still acute: it is necessary to weaken their outflow to the cities and find a way to attract rural residents from labor-surplus areas of the country to this zone. In the meantime, it can be recognized that the development of relations between the city and the countryside is seriously hampered by the action of factors that need to be changed or weakened: to create conditions for the transformation of the peasant into the owner of the land, to make the labor process more attractive, to provide access to cultural values ​​to a greater extent and without significant restrictions. and education.

In our time, market relations seriously affect the social structure of society. Their impact can also be traced in the fact that group egoism has spread, which is based on opposing one's own interest to public interests by infringing on the rights and position of other social groups. This phenomenon has become a serious brake on progressive changes in the social structure of society. In such a situation, belonging to one class or another, to one or another social group is determined not by civic, but by utilitarian interests, by the desire to find a place where one can earn more and faster. This, unfortunately, often coexists with the desire to snatch more from society, to neglect public interests, to switch to an area where the opportunities for personal enrichment are more favorable.

In conditions when the mechanism of market relations affects the social position of a person, it is obvious that the entire social structure experiences their direct and indirect impact. Tension in the social structure of society often develops under the influence of not only objective trends in the development of market relations, but also changes taking place in the public consciousness, which is manifested in the corresponding attitudes and behavior of people. At the same time, as life shows, complex problems of a social structure are solved the more effectively, the more fully the objective logic of its functioning coincides with the subjective activity of people, when the material aspect is complemented by the spiritual, moral. One thing is certain: the social structure reflects the social position of a person, which has a clearly expressed tendency for his assessment to correlate, firstly, with a person’s real contribution to social production, secondly, with his creative potential, and, thirdly, with his professional training, skills and activity.

List of used literature

1. Dobrenkov V.I., Kravchenko A.I. Sociology: Textbook. - M.: INFRA-M, 2001. - 624 p.;
2. Toshchenko Zh.T. Sociology: General course. - 2nd ed., add. and reworked. - M.: Wright-M. 2001. - 527p.

Society does not remain unshakable. In society, there is a slow or rapid increase in the number of one and a decrease in the number of another social stratum, as well as an increase or decrease in their status. The relative stability of social strata does not rule out vertical migration of individuals. According to P. Sorokin, social mobility is understood as the transition of an individual, a social community, a value from one social status to another."

social mobility is the transition of a person from one social group to another.

Horizontal mobility is distinguished when a person moves to a group located at the same hierarchical level as the previous one, and vertical when a person moves to a higher (upward mobility) or lower (downward mobility) rung in the social hierarchy.

Examples of Horizontal Mobility: moving from one city to another, changing religion, moving from one family to another after the breakdown of marriage, changing citizenship, moving from one political party to another, changing jobs when transferring to an approximately equivalent position.

Examples of vertical mobility: change from a low-paid job to a highly paid one, the transformation of an unskilled worker into a skilled one, the election of a politician as the president of the country (these examples demonstrate upward vertical mobility), the demotion of an officer to a private, the ruin of an entrepreneur, the transfer of a shop manager to the position of foreman (downward vertical mobility).

Societies where social mobility is high are called open, and societies with low social mobility closed. In the most closed societies (say, in a caste system), upward upward mobility is practically impossible. In less closed (for example, in a class society) there are opportunities for moving the most ambitious or successful people to higher levels of the social ladder.

Traditionally, the institutions that contributed to the promotion of people from the "low" classes were the army and the church, where any private or priest, with the appropriate abilities, could reach the highest social position - become a general or church hierarch. Another way to rise higher in the social hierarchy was profitable marriage and marriage.

In an open society, the main mechanism for raising social status is the institution of education. Even a member of the lowest social strata can expect to achieve a high position, but on the condition that he receives a good education at a prestigious university, demonstrating high academic performance, dedication and high intellectual abilities.

Individual and group social mobility

At individual social mobility, it is possible to change the social status and role of an individual within the framework of social stratification. For example, in post-Soviet Russia, a former ordinary engineer becomes an "oligarch", and the president turns into a wealthy pensioner. At group social mobility changes the social status of some social community. For example, in post-Soviet Russia, a significant part of teachers, engineers, scientists became "shuttles". Social mobility also implies the possibility of changing the social status of values. For example, during the transition to post-Soviet relations, the values ​​of liberalism (freedom, enterprise, democracy, etc.) have risen in our country, while the values ​​of socialism (equality, diligence, centralism, etc.) have fallen.

Horizontal and vertical social mobility

Social mobility can be vertical and horizontal. At horizontal mobility is the social movement of individuals and occurs in other, but equal in status social communities. These can be considered as moving from state structures to private ones, moving from one enterprise to another, etc. Varieties of horizontal mobility are: territorial (migration, tourism, relocation from village to city), professional (change of profession), religious (change of religion) , political (transition from one political party to another).

At vertical mobility is happening ascending and descending movement of people. An example of such mobility is the demotion of workers from the "hegemon" in the USSR to the simple class in today's Russia and, conversely, the rise of speculators to the middle and upper class. Vertical social movements are associated, firstly, with profound changes in the socio-economic structure of society, the emergence of new classes, social groups striving to win a higher social status, and secondly, with a change in ideological guidelines, value systems and norms. , political priorities. In this case, there is an upward movement of those political forces that were able to catch changes in the mindsets, orientations and ideals of the population.

To quantify social mobility, indicators of its speed are used. Under speed social mobility refers to the vertical social distance and the number of strata (economic, professional, political, etc.) that individuals go through in their movement up or down over a certain period of time. For example, a young specialist after graduation can take the positions of a senior engineer or head of a department for several years, etc.

Intensity social mobility is characterized by the number of individuals who change social positions in a vertical or horizontal position for a certain period of time. The number of such individuals gives absolute intensity of social mobility. For example, during the years of reforms in post-Soviet Russia (1992-1998), up to one-third of the “Soviet intelligentsia”, who made up the middle class of Soviet Russia, became “shuttle traders.

Aggregate index social mobility includes its speed and intensity. In this way one can compare one society with another in order to find out (1) in which of them or (2) in what period social mobility is higher or lower in all indicators. Such an index can be calculated separately for economic, professional, political and other social mobility. Social mobility is an important characteristic of the dynamic development of society. Those societies where the total index of social mobility is higher develop much more dynamically, especially if this index belongs to the ruling strata.

Social (group) mobility is associated with the emergence of new social groups and affects the ratio of the main ones, whose no longer correspond to the existing hierarchy. By the middle of the 20th century, for example, managers (managers) of large enterprises became such a group. On the basis of this fact in Western sociology, the concept of the "revolution of managers" (J. Bernheim) has developed. According to it, the administrative stratum begins to play a decisive role not only in the economy, but also in social life, supplementing and displacing the class of owners of the means of production (capitalists).

Social movements along the vertical are intensively going on during the restructuring of the economy. The emergence of new prestigious, highly paid professional groups contributes to mass movement up the ladder of social status. The fall of the social status of the profession, the disappearance of some of them provoke not only a downward movement, but also the emergence of marginal strata, losing their usual position in society, losing the achieved level of consumption. There is an erosion of values ​​and norms that previously united them and determined their stable place in the social hierarchy.

Outcasts - these are social groups that have lost their former social status, deprived of the opportunity to engage in their usual activities, and found themselves unable to adapt to the new sociocultural (value and normative) environment. Their former values ​​and norms did not succumb to the displacement of new norms and values. The efforts of marginals to adapt to new conditions give rise to psychological stress. The behavior of such people is characterized by extremes: they are either passive or aggressive, and also easily violate moral standards, capable of unpredictable actions. A typical leader of marginals in post-Soviet Russia is V. Zhirinovsky.

During periods of acute social cataclysms, a radical change in the social structure, an almost complete renewal of the highest echelons of society can occur. Thus, the events of 1917 in our country led to the overthrow of the old ruling classes (nobility and bourgeoisie) and the rapid rise of a new ruling stratum (communist party bureaucracy) with nominally socialist values ​​and norms. Such a cardinal replacement of the upper stratum of society always takes place in an atmosphere of extreme confrontation and tough struggle.

Thanks to social mobility, members of society can change their status within society. This phenomenon has many features and characteristics. The nature of social mobility varies depending on the characteristics of a particular country.

The concept of social mobility

What is social mobility? This is a change by a person of his place in the structure of society. An individual can move from one social group to another. Such mobility is called vertical. At the same time, a person can change his position within the same social stratum. This is another mobility – horizontal. The movement takes many forms - the rise or fall of prestige, changes in income, career advancement. Such events have a serious impact on a person's behavior, as well as his relationships with others, attitudes and interests.

The types of mobility described above took on modern forms after the emergence of industrial society. The ability to change one's position in society is an important sign of progress. The opposite case is represented by conservative and estate societies where castes exist. As a rule, a person is assigned to such a group from his very birth until his death. The Indian caste system is best known. With reservations, such orders existed in medieval feudal Europe, where there was a great social gap between the poor and the rich.

The history of the phenomenon

The emergence of vertical mobility became possible after the start of industrialization. About three hundred years ago, the industrial development of European countries accelerated significantly, which led to the growth of the proletarian class. At the same time, states around the world (with varying degrees of success) began to introduce a system of accessible education. It has become and still is the main channel of vertical social mobility.

At the beginning of the 20th century, most of the population of any country were unskilled workers (or with the beginnings of a general education). At the same time, mechanization and automation of production took place. The new type of economy demanded more and more highly qualified personnel. It is this need that explains the increase in the number of educational institutions, and hence the opportunities for social growth.

Mobility and economy

One of the features of an industrial society is that mobility in it is determined by the structure of the economy. In other words, the possibilities for climbing the social ladder depend not only on the personal qualities of a person (his professionalism, energy, etc.), but also on how the different sectors of the country's economy are interconnected.

Mobility is not possible everywhere. It is an attribute of a society that has given its citizens equal opportunities. And although there are no absolutely equal conditions in any country, many modern states continue to move towards this ideal.

Individual and group mobility

In each country, the types and types of mobility are presented differently. Society can selectively raise some individuals up the social ladder and lower others. This is a natural process. For example, talented and professional people should definitely replace the mediocre ones and get their high status. Rise can be individual and group. These types of mobility differ in the number of individuals changing their status.

In an individual case, a person can increase his prestige in society due to his talents and hard work (for example, become a famous musician or receive a prestigious education). Group mobility is associated with much more complex processes, covering a significant part of society. A striking example of such a phenomenon can be changes in the prestige of the profession of engineers or a fall in the popularity of the party, which will necessarily affect the position of the members of this organization.

Infiltration

In order to achieve a change in his position in society, the individual must make certain efforts. Vertical mobility becomes possible only if a person is able to overcome all the barriers that lie between different social strata. As a rule, climbing the social ladder occurs due to the ambitions and the individual's need for his own success. Any kind of mobility is necessarily associated with the vigor of a person and his desire to change his status.

The infiltration that exists in every society weeds out people who have made insufficient efforts to change the social stratum. The German scientist Kurt Lewin even came up with his own formula, with which you can determine the likelihood of a particular person ascending in the social hierarchy. In the theory of this psychologist and sociologist, the most important variable is the energy of the individual. Vertical mobility also depends on the social conditions in which a person lives. If he meets all the requirements of society, then he will be able to undergo infiltration.

The inevitability of mobility

There are at least two reasons for the existence of the phenomenon of social mobility. First, any society invariably changes in the course of its historical development. New features may appear gradually, or they may appear instantly, as happens in the case of revolutions. One way or another, but in any society, new statuses undermine and replace the old ones. This process is accompanied by changes in the distribution of labor, benefits and responsibilities.

Secondly, even in the most inert and stagnant societies, no power can control the natural distribution of abilities and talents. This principle continues to operate even if the elite or the authorities have monopolized and limited the accessibility of education. Therefore, there is always a possibility that the top layer will be at least periodically replenished with worthy people “from below”.

Mobility across generations

Researchers identify another feature by which social mobility is determined. Generation can serve as this measure. What explains this pattern? The history of the development of very different societies shows that the position of people of different generations (for example, children and parents) can not only differ, but, as a rule, is different. Data from Russia supports this theory. On average, with each new generation, the inhabitants of the former USSR and the Russian Federation have gradually risen and are climbing up the social ladder. This pattern also takes place in many other modern countries.

Thus, when listing the types of mobility, one should not forget about intergenerational mobility, an example of which is described above. In order to determine progress on this scale, it is enough to compare the situation of two people at a certain point in their career development at approximately the same age. The measure in this case is the rank in the profession. If, for example, a father at the age of 40 was a shop manager, and a son at that age became a factory director, then this is intergenerational growth.

Factors

Slow and gradual mobility can have many factors. An important example in this series is the migration of people from rural areas to cities. International migration has played a serious role in the history of all mankind, especially since the 19th century, when it swept the whole world.

It was in this century that huge masses of the peasant population of Europe moved to the United States. You can also give an example of the colonial expansion of some empires of the Old World. The capture of new territories and the subjugation of entire nations were fertile ground for the rise of some people and the slide down the social ladder of others.

Effects

If lateral mobility mostly affects only a particular individual or group of people, then vertical mobility entails much larger consequences that are difficult to measure. There are two opposing points of view on this.

The first says that any examples of mobility in the vertical direction destroy the class structure of society and make it more homogeneous. This theory has both supporters and opponents. On the other hand, there is a point of view according to which a high level of social mobility only strengthens the system of social strata. This happens for the simple reason that people who find themselves on a higher rung of their position become interested in maintaining class differences and contradictions.

Speed

According to sociological science, the main types of social mobility have an indicator of their own speed. With its help, experts give a quantitative assessment of this phenomenon in each case. Speed ​​is the distance that an individual travels in a certain period of time. It is measured in professional, political or economic strata.

For example, one university graduate managed to become the head of a department at his enterprise in four years of his career. At the same time, his classmate, who graduated with him, became an engineer by the end of the same term. In this case, the speed of social mobility of the first graduate is higher than that of his friend. This indicator can be influenced by a variety of factors - personal aspiration, the qualities of a person, as well as his environment and circumstances associated with working in a company. The high rate of social mobility can also be inherent in processes opposite to those described above, if we are talking about a person who has lost his job.

Intensity

Considering 2 types of mobility (horizontal and vertical), one can determine the number of individuals who change their position in society. In different countries, this figure gives different figures. The larger the number of these people, the higher the intensity of social mobility. Like speed, this indicator demonstrates the nature of internal transformations in society.

If we are talking about the actual number of individuals, then the absolute intensity is determined. In addition, it can also be relative. This is the name of the intensity, determined by the proportion of individuals who have changed their position, from the total number of members of society. Modern science gives different estimates of the importance of this indicator. The combination of the intensity and speed of social mobility determines the overall mobility index. With it, scientists can easily compare the state of different societies.

The future of mobility

Today, in Western and economically developed societies, horizontal mobility is gaining significant proportions. This is due to the fact that in such countries (for example, in Western Europe and the USA), society is becoming more and more classless. The differences between layers are blurred. This is facilitated by a developed system of accessible education. In rich countries, anyone can learn, regardless of their background. The only important criterion is his interest, talent and ability to acquire new knowledge.

There is another reason why the former social mobility is no longer relevant in the modern post-industrial society. Moving up becomes more and more conditional if income and financial well-being are taken as the determining factor. Today, a stable and wealthy society can introduce social benefits (as is done in the Scandinavian countries). They smooth out contradictions between people on different rungs of the social ladder. So the boundaries between the usual classes are erased.