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METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Psychological research: requirements for the organization and its stages

Characteristics of the main empirical methods of psychology

Possession of methods for studying the psychology of personality is one of the necessary components of the professional activity of a lawyer. A lawyer must be able to identify, analyze and take into account the individual psychological characteristics of a person (witness, suspect, accused), the goals of their actions and actions, hidden motives of behavior. The choice of methods for studying the personality of the subjects of various legal relations in the professional activities of a lawyer, as well as the adequacy of the methods themselves, largely depends on the goals that he faces and on the nature of the issues that need to be resolved.

Psychological research:
requirements for the organization and its stages

The method of obtaining objective knowledge about the surrounding reality is scientific research.Psychological research− it is a way of scientific knowledge of the essence of mental phenomena and their laws.

Psychological research includes a number of mandatory steps (Fig. 1) .

Any scientific research, including psychological research, must meet a number of strict requirements:

1. Study planning involves the development of a logical and chronological scheme of research, consisting of a detailed design of all its stages.
2. Locationresearch should provide isolation from external interference, meet sanitary and hygienic and engineering and psychological requirements.

1. Studying the state of the problem. Statement of the problem, choice of object and subject of research

2. Development or refinement of the general initial research concept. Hypothesis

3. Study planning

4. Data collection and factual description. In a theoretical study - the search and selection of facts, their systematization

5. Data processing

Determination of the goals and objectives of the study

Definition of experimental plans

Choice of research methods and techniques

Definition of mathematical processing methods data

6 . Evaluation of the results of hypothesis testing, interpretation of the results within the framework of the original research concept

7. Correlation of results with existing concepts and theories. Formulation of general conclusions. Assessment of the prospects for further development of the problem

Rice. 1. The main stages of psychological research

3. Technical equipmentshould correspond to the tasks to be solved, the entire course of the study and the level of analysis of the results obtained.

4. Selection of subjectsdepends on the objectives of the particular study andshould ensure their qualitative homogeneity.

5. Instruction must be clear, concise and unambiguous for the subjects.

6. Protocol research should be both complete and focused (selective).

7. Results processingresearch includes quantitative and qualitative methods for analyzing the empirical data obtained during the study .

Classification of research methods

Methods of psychologyname the main methods and means of cognition of mental phenomena and their patterns.

It should be noted that, although all methods aim to reveal the laws of the psyche and human behavior, each method does this in accordance with its inherent characteristics.

Future lawyers need to clearly understand the features of each method in order to actively use them in their professional activities. In psychology, there are four groups of research methods (Fig. 2) .

organizational methods.This group includes comparative, longitudinal and complex methods, which are used throughout the study and represent various organizational and research approaches.

Comparative methodinvolves a comparison of the objects under study on various grounds, indicators.

Longitudinal methodinvolves multiple examinations of the same persons over a long period of time.

Complex methodresearch is to consider the object from the standpoint of various sciences or from different points of view.

Classification

Methods of psychological research

Organizational

Data processing methods

Interpretation methods

empirical

Comparative

Phylogenetic

ontogenetic

Typology

Methods of mathematical and statistical data analysis

Qualitative analysis methods

Genetic

Structural

Complex

Longitudinal

Analysis of processes and products of activity

Biographical

Observation

Experiment

Psychodiagnostic methods

Method of expert assessments

Rice. 2. Classification of methods of psychological research
B.G. Ananyeva

empirical methods.These are, first of all, observation and experiment, as well as psychodiagnostic methods (conversation, questioning, testing, etc.), the method of expert assessments, the method of analyzing the process and products of activity, and the biographical method (Fig. 3).

Main

Auxiliary

Psychodiagnostic
methods:

1. conversation
2. questioning
3. testing

Observation

Observation:

1. open
2. hidden
3. passive
4. active
5. laboratory
6. natural
7. random
8. systematic
9. included
10. unincluded
11. continuous
12. selective
13. longitudinal
14. periodic
15. single

Experiment:

1. laboratory
2. natural
3. ascertaining
4. formative

Method of expert
ratings

Process and product analysis method
activities

biographical method

Empirical Research Methods

Observation

Rice. 3. Basic empirical methods of psychology

Data processing methods.These include quantitative(statistical) and qualitative(differentiation of material by groups, its analysis) methods.

Interpretation methods.This group includes genetic (analysis of material in terms of development with the allocation of individual phases, stages, critical moments, etc.) and structural(revealing the relationship between all personality characteristics) methods.

Characteristics of the main empirical methods
psychology

Observation method

Observation - one of the main empirical methods of psychology, consisting in a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of mental phenomena in order to study their specific changes in certain conditions and search for the meaning of these phenomena, which is not directly given .

The description of phenomena based on observation is scientific if the psychological understanding of the inner side of the observed act contained in it gives a natural explanation of its external manifestation.

Only exteriorized (external) manifestations of verbal and non-verbal behavior are available for observation:

1. pantomime (posture, gait, gestures, postures, etc.);
2. facial expressions (facial expression, its expressiveness, etc.);
3. speech (silence, talkativeness, verbosity, laconism; stylistic features, content and culture of speech; intonation richness, etc.);
4. behavior in relation to other people (position in the team and attitude to this, the method of establishing contact, the nature of communication, communication style, position in communication, etc.);
5. the presence of contradictions in behavior (demonstration of different, opposite in meaning ways of behavior in situations of the same type);
6. behavioral manifestations of attitude towards oneself (to one's appearance, shortcomings, advantages, opportunities, personal belongings);
7. behavior in psychologically significant situations (task completion, conflict);
8. behavior in the main activity (work).

Factors that determine the complexity of knowing the internal through observation of the external are:

1. the ambiguity of connections between subjective psychic reality and its external manifestation;

There is the following classification of types of observation
(Fig. 4) .

From a chronological perspective of the organization observations

depending

From position

observer

By order

depending

from

regularity

Depending on activity

observer

Active

Random

Systematic

Systematic

selective

continuous

Random

Hidden

passive

open

Laboratory

natural

Clinical

single

periodic

Longitudinal

Observation

Not included

Included

Included

Not included

Rice. 4. Classification of types of observation

Depending on the position of the observer:

1. open - observation, in which the observed are aware of their role as the object of research;
2. hidden - observation, which is not reported to the subjects, carried out unnoticed by them.

2. Depending on the activity of the observer:

1. passive – observation without any direction;
2. active - observation of specific phenomena, the absence of interference in the observed process;

1. laboratory (experimental)– observation in artificially created conditions. The degree of artificiality can be different: from the minimum in a casual conversation in a familiar environment to the maximum in an experiment using special rooms, technical means and coercive instructions. In medical practice, this type of observation is often referred to as clinical observation, i.e. monitoring the patient during his treatment;
2. natural (field)– observation of objects in the natural conditions of their daily life and activities.

3. Depending on the regularity:

1. random – observation not planned in advance, performed due to unexpected circumstances;

1. systematic– intentional observation carried out according to a premeditated plan and, as a rule, according to a predetermined schedule;
2. included - observation, in which the observer is a member of the group under study and studies it, as it were, from the inside;
3. unincluded – observation from the outside, without the interaction of the observer with the object of study. This type of observation, in fact, is an objective (external) observation.

4. By order:

1. random - observation not planned in advance, performed due to unexpected circumstances;
2. continuous – continuous observation of the object without interruption. It is usually used for short term studies or when it is necessary to obtain the most complete information about the dynamics of the phenomena under study;
3. selective – observation carried out at separate time intervals chosen by the researcher at his own discretion;
4. systematic- intentional observation, carried out according to a premeditated plan and, as a rule, according to a predetermined schedule.

5. From the point of view of the chronological organization of observation:

1. longitudinal – observation for a long time;
2. periodic – observation during certain intervals

kov time;

1. single – description of a particular case.

The observation method has its own characteristics (Fig. 5).

Features of the application of the observation method

The wealth of information collected (analysis of both verbal information and actions, movements, deeds)

Subjectivity (the results largely depend on the experience, scientific views, qualifications, interests, work capacity of the researcher)

Preservation of the naturalness of the conditions of activity

It is acceptable to use a variety of technical means

It is not necessary to obtain the prior consent of the subjects

Significant loss of time due to passivity of the observer

Inability to control the situation, intervene in the course of events without distorting them

Rice. 5. Features of the application of the observation method

The description of phenomena based on observation is scientific if the psychological understanding of the internal (subjective) side of the observed act contained in it gives a natural explanation of its external manifestation. The traditional way of recording data is the observation diary, which is a special record of the observer, reflecting the facts from the life of the observed person.

Requirements for recording data in the observation diary:

1. adequate transmission of the meaning of the observed phenomena;
2. accuracy and figurativeness of formulations;
3. a mandatory description of the situation (background, context) in which the observed behavior took place.

The method of observation is widely used in legal practice. For a psychologist and a lawyer, external observation is one of the main methods of studying not only a person's behavior, but also his character and mental characteristics. By external manifestations, the investigator judges the internal causes of a person’s behavior, his emotional state, difficulties in perceiving, for example, a witness to a crime event, the attitude towards the participants in the investigation, justice, etc. This method is used in legal practice and for educational purposes (for example, by an investigator during investigative actions). During a search, interrogation, investigative experiment, the investigator has the opportunity to purposefully observe the behavior of persons of interest to him, their emotional reactions, and, depending on this, change the tactics of his observation.

The development of the “behavioral portrait” method by legal psychologists and lawyers allows creating a more complete picture of a particular person who is being monitored (a person’s mental state, character traits, social status). A behavioral portrait helps investigators and operatives in identifying suspects, accused, witnesses and victims, in searching for and apprehending criminals in hiding.

Self-observation (introspection)- this is the observation of one's own internal mental processes, but at the same time, the observation of their external manifestations.

In legal practice, the testimonies of victims, witnesses are actually self-reports about their states and experiences. Self-observation can be used by a lawyer as a method of self-knowledge, allowing him to identify his characterological features, personality traits in order to better control his own behavior, neutralize in time, for example, the manifestation of unnecessary emotional reactions, outbursts of irritability in extreme conditions caused by neuropsychic overload. kami.

Experiment

Experiment is a method of collecting empirical data in specially planned and controlled conditions in which the experimenter influences the phenomenon under study and registers changes in its state . The following types of experiment are distinguished: laboratory, natural, ascertaining, forming (Fig. 6, Table 1).

Experiment

Natural

(carried out in real
living conditions)

Laboratory

(carried out under conditions
laboratories)

b

Experiment

Formative

(provides for the purposeful influence of the experimenter on the studied mental phenomenon)

stating

(limited to stating changes in the studied
mental phenomena)

Rice. 6. Classification of types of experiment:

a – depending on the conditions of the experiment;
b - depending on the position of the experimenter in the study

Psychic Phenomena

Table 1.

Features of the use of laboratory and natural experiment

Laboratory experiment	natural experiment
Ensures high accuracy of results	Relative accuracy of results
Repeated studies under similar conditions are possible	Repeated studies under similar conditions are excluded.
Almost complete control over all variables	Lack of full control over all variables
The conditions of the activities of the subjects do not correspond to reality	Operating conditions correspond to reality
Subjects are aware that they are the subjects of the study.	Subjects are unaware that they are subjects of research

A psychological experiment, unlike observation, involves the possibility of activeinterference of the researcher in the activity of the subject (Table 2) .

table 2

Comparative analysis of observation and experiment

Observation	Experiment
Depending on the nature of the questions
The question remains open. The observer does not know the answer or has a vague idea about it.	The question becomes a hypothesis; implies the existence of some relationship between the facts. The experiment aims to test the hypothesis
Depending on the control of the situation
Observation situations are defined less strictly than in experiment. Transitional steps from natural to provoked observation	The situation of the experiment is clearly defined
Depending on registration accuracy
The procedure for recording the actions of the subject is less strict than in the experiment	The exact procedure for recording the actions of the subject

In the practice of psychological and legal research, both laboratory and natural experiments have become widespread. The laboratory experiment is widespread mainly in scientific research, as well as in the conduct of forensic psychological examination. When conducting a laboratory experiment, complex laboratory equipment is used (multichannel oscilloscopes, tachistoscopes, etc.).

With the help of a laboratory experiment, in particular, such professional qualities of a lawyer as attention, observation, etc. are studied. The natural experiment is widely used by officials fighting crime, primarily investigators. However, its application should in no case go beyond the scope of criminal procedural norms. This refers to the conduct of investigative experiments, the purpose of which is to test certain psycho-physiological qualities of victims, witnesses and other persons. In difficult cases, it is recommended to invite a specialist psychologist to participate in them.

Conversation

Conversation - an auxiliary method of obtaining information based on verbal (verbal) communication. The researcher asks questions, and the subject answers them. The form of the conversation can be a free or standardized survey (Fig. 7).

Standardized Poll

Free Poll

Errors in the formulation of questions are excluded

The resulting data is harder to compare with each other

The data obtained are easily comparable with each other.

Bears the imprint of artificiality (reminiscent of an oral questionnaire)

Allows you to flexibly adjust the research tactics, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them

Rice. 7. Features of the use of standardized and free survey

Standardized Poll− a survey characterized by a predetermined set and order of questions.

Free survey in form approaches the usual conversation and is natural, informal. It is also conducted according to a certain plan, and the main questions are developed in advance, but during the course of the survey, the researcher can ask additional questions, as well as modify the wording of the planned questions. A survey of this type allows you to flexibly adjust the research tactics, the content of the questions asked, and receive non-standard answers to them.

In legal practice, this type of conversation can be used as an anamnesis (an anamnesis is information about the past of the subject, obtained from him or, with an objective anamnesis, from people who know him well).

A casual conversation allows the investigator to study the main personality traits of the interlocutor, develop an individual approach and make contact with the interrogated. Such a conversation very often precedes the main part of the interrogation and the achievement of the main goal - obtaining objective and complete information about the crime event. During the conversation, the investigator should pay attention to establishing personal contact with the interlocutor. A climate favorable for conversation is created by:

1. clear, concise and meaningful introductory phrases and explanations;
2. showing respect for the personality of the interlocutor, attention to his opinion and interests;
3. positive remarks (any person has positive qualities);
4. a skillful manifestation of expression (tone, timbre of voice, intonation, facial expressions, etc.), which is designed to confirm a person’s conviction in what is being discussed, his interest in the issues raised.

A conversation between a psychologist of the department of internal organs and a victim as a result of a crime can and should cause a psychotherapeutic effect. Understanding the emotional states of another person, expressing sympathy for him, the ability to put yourself in his place, demonstrating sympathetic attention to the vital needs of a person is an important condition for contact with the interlocutor.

Conducting a conversation is a great art that both psychologists and lawyers must master. This method requires special flexibility and clarity, the ability to listen to the interlocutor, understand his emotional states, respond to their changes, fix the external manifestations of these states. In addition, the conversation helps the lawyer to demonstrate his positive qualities, the desire to objectively understand certain phenomena. The conversation is an important tool for establishing and maintaining psychological contact with witnesses, suspects, etc.

Questionnaire

Questionnaire - this is a collection of facts on the basis of a written self-report of the subject according to a specially compiled program. Questionnaire is a questionnaire with a pre-compiled system of questions, each of which is logically related to the central hypothesisresearch. The survey procedure includes three stages:

1 . Determination of the content of the questionnaire. This may be a list of questions about the facts of life, interests, motives, assessments, relationships.

2 . Choice of question type. Questions are divided into open, closed and semi-closed.Open questionsallow the subject to build a response in accordance with their desires, both in content and in form. Processing responses to open-ended questions is difficult, but they allow you to discover completely unexpected and unintended judgments.Closed questionsprovide for the choice of one or more answer options placed in the questionnaire. These kinds of responses are easily processed quantitatively.Semi-closed questionsinvolves the choice of one or more answer options from a number of proposed ones, at the same time, the subject is given the opportunity to independently formulate an answer to the question. The type of question can affect the completeness and sincerity of the answer.

3. Determine the number and order of questions to be asked.

When compiling the questionnaire, you should adhere to a number of general rules and principles:

1. the wording of questions should be clear and precise, their content understandable to the respondent, consistent with his knowledge and education;
2. complex and polysemantic words should be excluded;
3. there should not be too many questions, as interest is lost due to increasing fatigue;

1. include questions that test the degree of sincerity.

The method of questioning is widely used in the study of the professiogram of officials, their professional suitability and professional deformation. Currently, this method is widely used to study some aspects of the causes of crime (for example, the mechanism of formation of criminal intent, etc.).

Test method

Testing is the collection of facts about psychic reality using standardized tools - tests.

Test - a method of psychological measurement, consisting of a series of brief tasks and aimed at diagnosing the individual severity of personality traits and states . With the help of tests, you can study and compare the psychological characteristics of different people, give differentiated and comparable assessments.

Depending on the area to be diagnosed, there are intellectual tests; achievement and special ability tests; personality tests; tests of interests, attitudes, tests diagnosing interpersonal relationships, etc. There are a large number of tests aimed at assessing personality, abilities and behavioral characteristics.

There are the following types of tests:

1. test questionnaire - is based on a system of preconceived, carefully

carefully selected and tested for validity and reliability

questions, the answers to which can be used to judge the level of severity of personality traits;

1. test task - includes a series of special tasks, following the results

the implementation of which is judged on the presence (absence) and the level of severity of the studied properties;

1. projective test- it contains a projection mechanism, according to

to which a person tends to attribute unconscious self-qualities to the unstructured stimulus material of the test, such as inkblots. In various manifestations of a person, whether it be creativity, interpretation of events, statements, etc., his personality is embodied, including hidden, unconscious impulses, aspirations, experiences, conflicts. Test material can be interpreted in a variety of ways, where the main thing is not its objective content, but the subjective meaning, the attitude that it causes in a person. It should be remembered that projective tests impose increased requirements on the level of education, intellectual maturity of the individual, and also require high professionalism on the part of the researcher.

The development and use of any tests must meet the following basic requirements:

1. standardization, consisting in the creation of a uniform procedure for conducting and evaluating the performance of test tasks (linear or non-linear transformation of test scores, the meaning of which is to replace the original scores with new, derivative ones that make it easier to understand the test results, using the methods of mathematical statistics);
2. reliability, meaning the consistency of the indicators obtained from the same subjects during repeated testing (retest) using the same test or its equivalent form;
3. validity (adequacy) - the extent to which the test measures exactly what it is intended for;
4. practicality, those. economy, simplicity, efficiency of use and practical value for many different situations (subjects) and activities.

The features of the test include poor predictability, “attachment” of the results to a specific testing situation, the attitude of the subject to the procedure and the researcher, the dependence of the results on the state of the person being studied (fatigue, stress, irritability, etc.).

The results of the test, as a rule, give only an actual cut of the quality being measured, while most of the characteristics of personality and behavior are capable of changing dynamically. Thus, testing a person accused of a crime (being in a pre-trial detention center), when solving the problems of a forensic psychological examination, can give an incorrect, distorted idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe personality in connection with a state of anxiety, possible depression, despair, anger, etc.

The use of tests by specialists implies that they comply with a number of procedural requirements, which a lawyer should be aware of when evaluating the test results set forth in the act of forensic psychological examination. Testing should be carried out in favorable conditions for the subject in terms of time, the situation of the examination, his well-being, the attitude of the psychologist towards him, professionally competently setting tasks for him and conducting the examination.

Deviations from these mandatory requirements may indicate insufficient scientific competence of a specialist psychologist and adversely affect the assessment of his conclusion by the court.

Method of expert assessments

Method of expert assessmentsconsists in conducting by experts an intuitive-logical analysis of the problem with a quantitatively justified judgment and formal processing of the results.

One of the most important points in using this method is the choice of experts. Experts can be persons who know the subject well and the problem being studied: a juvenile inspector, parents, friends, etc. An expert assessment is displayed as a quantitative assessment of the severity of the studied properties. The researcher summarizes and analyzes the assessments of experts.

In legal practice, this method allows you to collect as much independent information as possible about the personality of the accused in order to form an objective opinion about him. So, for example, in order to fully characterize the accused, one characteristic from his last place of work is not enough. Therefore, it is very important for the investigation to consider the characteristics from the places where the accused studied or worked, the opinion of neighbors, work colleagues, relatives and acquaintances about him.

Method of analysis of the process and products of activity

This method involves the study of the materialized results of a person's mental activity, the material products of his previous activity. In the products of activity, a person’s attitude to the activity itself, to the world around is manifested, the level of development of intellectual, sensory, motor skills is reflected. This method is most often used as an auxiliary one, since on its basis it is not always possible to reveal the whole variety of human mental activity. In legal practice, the method of analyzing the process and products of activity, in conjunction with other methods, is used to study the identity of wanted criminals. So, according to the results of criminal activity, they judge not only the degree of social danger of the deed, but also certain characterological features of the individual, the mental state of the accused at the time of the crime, the motives for the crime, intellectual abilities, etc.

biographical method

biographical method− this is a way of researching and designing the life path of a person, based on the study of documents of her biography (personal diaries, correspondence, etc.). The biographical method involves the use of the content analysis method as a method of quantitative and qualitative processing of documentation.

In legal practice, the purpose of this method is to collect information about facts and events of psychological significance in a person's life, from the moment of birth to the period that interests the investigator and the court. During the interrogation of witnesses who know the subject well, and during a conversation with him, the investigator himself finds out the information necessary for the investigation: about his parents, about his relationship with others, work, interests, inclinations, character, past illnesses, injuries. In necessary cases, various medical documents, personal files, diaries, letters, etc. are studied.

For future lawyers, teachers of law, the study and application of the methods of scientific psychology is of great practical value. They are necessary in work with teenagers, social groups, personnel; in addition, they help to build professional, business and everyday interpersonal relationships correctly, and are also designed to help in self-knowledge in order to rationally approach one's own destiny and personal growth.

1. Study planning- includes the selection and testing of methods and techniques, taking into account factors that may affect the result of the study. Planning is the compilation of a logical and chronological scheme of the study, the selection of subjects, determining their number and the required number of measurements, determining the method of processing the data obtained and describing the entire study.

2. Location of the study. Isolation from external interference, a certain comfort and a relaxed working environment must be provided.

3. Technical equipment must be appropriate for the task at hand.

4. Selection of subjects should ensure their qualitative homogeneity.

5. Instruction drawn up at the planning stage. Instructions should be clear, concise and unambiguous.

6. Researcher Behavior.

7. Record keeping of the study.

8. Processing of research results- this is a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data obtained during the study.

Stages of psychological research

1. Preparatory. Studying the state of the issue. Formulation of a working hypothesis. Selection of research methods.

2. Collection of factual data. For this purpose, various methods are used, this stage can be divided into several series.

3. Quantitative data processing. Determination of average values, measures of dispersion of data, correlation coefficients, plotting, etc.

4. Interpretation of data and formulation of conclusions.

The main function of the method is internal organization and regulation of the process of cognition or practical transformation of an object.

The method disciplines the search for truth, saves time and effort, allows you to move towards the goal in the shortest way.

Psychological Research Strategies

In the course of psychological research, the same people can be studied and only once. Such a method is called slice method. However, if researchers want to understand how this or that ability develops, how certain qualities or properties of people change with age, they study the same people for several years. Such a method is called longitudinal study (from English longitude - longitude), or longitudinal.

A longitudinal study can be carried out for 2, 3, 5 years. The longest-running longitudinal study in the history of psychology is the California Longitudinal Study, which followed the development of more than 1,000 gifted children over a period of 40 years.

Observation

LECTURE PLAN

1. Observation as a research method in psychology

2. Classification of observations

3. Advantages and disadvantages of the observation method

Scientific knowledge as a way of reflecting reality invariably provides for the perception of the features of natural phenomena and spheres of human activity. Broadly speaking, any method of empirical research contains elements of observation of objects in order to study their specificity and changes. Moreover, experiment, testing, oral or written survey, expert evaluation, content analysis, etc. can be considered as varieties of observations that differ in their conditions and the nature of the procedures performed in this case. However, the scientific tradition has long been entrenched in the allocation of a special, relatively independent of all other observational methods, combining observation and self-observation (introspection).

Of course, within the framework of a particular science, this method acquires its specific content. However, it is necessarily based on two principles:

· passivity of the subject of knowledge, expressed in the refusal to interfere in the processes under study in order to preserve the naturalness of their course;

· immediacy of perception, implying the limitation of the possibility of obtaining data within the visually posed situation of the present time (usually what is observed is what is happening "here and now").

In psychology, observation is understood as a method of studying the mental characteristics of individuals on the basis of fixing the manifestations of their behavior.

Observation is a purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena, the results of which are recorded by the observer.

It is impossible to observe the inner, subjective essences of thinking, imagination, will, temperament, character, abilities, etc., taken by themselves, outside of specific external manifestations. The subject of observations are verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior that take place in a certain situation or environment. It is they, properly identified and registered, that become the characteristics of intellectual and personal development, the dynamics of achievements, the severity of states, and much more.

So, studying people, the researcher can observe:

1) speech activity (content, sequence, duration, frequency, direction, intensity);

2) expressive reactions (expressive movements of the face, body);

3) the position of bodies in space (movement, immobility, distance, speed, direction of movement ...);

4) physical contacts (touching, pushing, hitting, passing, joint efforts…).

However, a lot depends, of course, on observation- the ability to notice the essential, characteristic, including subtle, properties of objects and phenomena. Without the development of such a quality in oneself, it is impossible to effectively carry out research activities. However, the matter is not limited to this.

If, for example, a very observant person looks around, having no definite goals of observation and not fixing its results in any way, then he will only see many faces and become a witness to various events. The information collected by him cannot be considered as evidence or refutation of facts, patterns, theories. Such a person saw and heard a lot, but did not observe in the strict sense of the word.

Scientific observation is different from worldly the following properties:

· purposefulness ; the observer must clearly understand what he is going to perceive and why, otherwise his activity will turn into the registration of separate bright and distinct secondary stimuli, and the essential material will remain unaccounted for;

· systematic , which will allow you to reliably distinguish random from typical, regular;

· regularity , since following the plan, the program helps to increase the effectiveness of the study, determining how the observation will be made; when, where, under what conditions;

· analyticity , because it involves not only a statement of the observed facts, but also their explanation, the identification of a psychological nature;

· registration of results , which makes it possible to eliminate memory errors, thereby reducing the subjectivity of conclusions and generalizations;

· operating a system of unambiguous concepts , special terms that contribute to a clear and unambiguous designation of the observed material, as well as the uniformity of possible interpretations.

Because of this, scientific observation acquires fundamental repeatability of results. The data obtained by a researcher under certain conditions will most likely be confirmed by another researcher if he works in the same conditions and the object of observation has not changed. For the results of scientific observation, while retaining a certain subjectivity, depend less on the personality of the perceiver than the results of worldly observation.

As a method of psychological research, observation has its strengths and weaknesses. Consider their approximate list:

Psychological research is not complete without the use of the method of observation at any of the stages, but it is extremely rare that the matter is limited to using only this method, without involving others. The study of complex mental phenomena requires from the researcher, as a rule, the consistent application of a whole complex of empirical methods of cognition.

So far, we have been talking about the general characteristics of psychological observation. However, this method has many varieties, distinguished for one reason or another. Let's move on to the question of classification of observations.

Depending on the degree of involvement of the researcher in the environment under study There are two types of observations:

· included when there is a personal participation of the observer in the activity perceived and recorded by him. At the same time, other people usually consider him a participant in the event, and not an observer;

· third party, when an event occurs without the direct participation of an observer acting as if "from outside".

It should be noted that in most cases, people's behavior changes dramatically if they notice that they have become the object of research. This violates the requirement to preserve the naturalness of the conditions of the activity under study. But in practice, for ethical or other reasons, it is far from always possible to carry out a study of their mental characteristics that is imperceptible to the subjects.

So by the nature of interactions with the object There are the following types of observations:

· hidden, in which people do not know that they are observables. (At the same time, the psychologist is either “disguised” as an ordinary participant in the events, that is, his behavior for others is quite consistent with what is expected in this situation, does not arouse suspicion, or he observes them indirectly, “from the outside”, using, say, a Gesell mirror or a hidden video camera);

· open, in which people are aware of the observation being made. Usually, after some time, they get used to the presence of a psychologist and begin to behave more naturally, unless, of course, the observer provokes close attention to themselves.

· external, behind the behavior of other people;

· introspection(from Latin “I look inside”, “peer”), that is, self-observation. The results of the latter in modern psychology are not taken for granted, but are taken into account as facts requiring an objective scientific interpretation.

Regarding the study time distinguish observation:

· single, single, produced only once;

· periodic carried out within certain periods of time;

· longitudinal(in English "longitude"), characterized by a special length, constancy of contact between the researcher and the object for a long time.

According to the nature of perception observation can be:

· continuous when the researcher pays his attention equally to all objects available to him;

· selective when he is only interested in certain parameters (say, such as the frequency of manifestations of aggression, the time of interaction between mother and child during the day, the features of speech contacts between children and teachers, etc.).

By the nature of data registration observation is divided into:

· ascertaining, where the task of the researcher is to clearly fix the presence and characteristics of significant forms of behavior, to collect facts;

· evaluating, where the researcher compares the facts according to the degree of their expression in some range.

And finally, according to the degree of standardization of procedures in They distinguish: free or exploratory observation, which is associated with a specific goal, but is devoid of clear restrictions in choosing what to pay attention to, what moments to fix. It is permissible to change the subject of research and rules, if necessary. This type of observation is usually used in the early stages of scientific work.

Structured or standardized, when the events that occur are recorded without the slightest deviation from the given programs. At the same time, the rules of observation are clearly defined, the entire content of research activities is prescribed, and uniform methods for recording and analyzing data are introduced. Such an observation is usually used where the researcher is required to single out already known and determined characteristics of reality, and not to look for new ones. This, of course, narrows the field of observation to some extent, but increases the comparability of the results obtained.

We now turn to the description of the stages of scientific observation. Traditionally, the following stages are distinguished:

1. Determination of the purpose of observation.

2. The choice of the object of research (what individual or what kind of group is to be studied?)

3. Clarification of the subject of research (what aspects of behavior reveal the content of the studied mental phenomena?)

4. Planning situations of observation (in what cases or under what conditions does the subject of research reveal itself most clearly?)

5. Selection of the method of observation that has the least effect on the object and provides the greatest collection of the necessary information.

6. Establishment of the duration of the total time of research and the number of observations.

7. Choice of methods for recording the material under study (how to keep records?).

8. Prediction of possible observation errors and search for ways to prevent them.

9. Implementation of a session of preliminary, trial observation, necessary to clarify the actions of the previous stages and identify organizational shortcomings.

10. Correction of the monitoring program.

11. Stage of observation.

12. Processing and interpretation of the received information.

In more detail, we should dwell on the question of the methods of recording the observed material.

Let's start with the fact that the process of effective observation is not possible without artificial isolation of certain units of the object's activity from the general course of events. This refers to the designation of what he is doing at the moment, how he is doing it. Such units of activity are expressed using ordinary words or scientific terminology. They are recorded in the protocol of observations.

Usually, there are 3 types of results registration procedures. Namely:

1. Usage sign (sign) systems. At the same time, in advance, during the preparation of observation forms, specific types of behavior characteristic of this area are described. In the future, it is recorded which of them appeared and how often during the observation period. Each sign should be formulated unambiguously for understanding by different people and not require additional explanations.

For example, what signs of students' interest in the content of the lesson can you name? What are the signs of their lack of interest in the material being studied? Of course, among the meanings you named, there should not be words like “attentive”, “interested”, “understanding”, which need to be specified in the meaning. And such signs as lively gestures, “pencil chewing” indicate both the intensity of interest and the complete absence of the latter.

Obviously, the proposed system of features is not exhaustive. In the course of observation, some essential characteristic that we previously missed may well appear. With this method of registering the results, the set of features is considered open. If necessary, it is allowed to make certain additions to it after the start of observation.

2. Application category systems. Such a system contains a complete description of all kinds of possible behavior. It is impossible to add anything new to it in the course of observations.

The fact is that the set of categories is compiled on a certain scientific basis. It is assumed that it covers all theoretical possible manifestations of the process under study.

Bales, by freely observing the work of groups, identified more than 80 signs of interpersonal communication, which, when systematized, were reduced to 12 categories, and the last - to 4 classes. Here's what they look like (according to Kornilova):

Class A. Positive emotions:

1. Expresses solidarity, raises the status of another, rewards;

2. Expresses relaxation of tension, jokes, laughs, expresses satisfaction;

3. Agrees, expresses passive acceptance, yields;

Class B. Problem Solving:

4. Gives advice, direction, implying the autonomy of the other;

5. Expresses an opinion, evaluates, analyzes, expresses feelings, desires;

6. Gives orientation, information, clarifies, confirms;

Class C. Statement of problems:

9. Asks for advice, direction, possible course of action;

Class D. Negative emotions:

10. Objects, gives passive rejection, formal, refuses to help;

11. Expresses tension, asks for help, gives in to a problem;

12. Expresses antagonism, undermines the status of another, defends or asserts himself;

3. rating scale, (from the English "assessment", "order", "classification"). With this method of registering the results, the attention of the researcher is drawn not to the presence of a particular feature, but to the quantitative or qualitative degree of its presence, representation. In this case, the work is carried out according to a pre-prepared ordinal scale.

for example: What interest does the student show during the lessons?

The specificity of the rating scale is that it is usually completed either at the last stage of observation or at its end. Of all the data recording methods, this one is the most subjective. The researcher acts here not so much as an observer, but as an expert comparing behavioral characteristics with "reference" samples known only to him. Therefore, the rating scale is more often used not autonomously from other registration methods, but along with them. Then its filling on the basis of a system of attributes or a system of categories becomes the beginning of the procedure for interpreting the results of observation.

Observation logging allows you to return to the observed facts. The protocol is the basis and starting point for further analysis:

· Records should be detailed enough to allow objective analysis.

· Take notes at the place of observations or immediately after the study. After observation, review the records, correct them and supplement them.

The form of record keeping is determined by:

The subject, task and purity of the study;

The presence of prepared conventional signs for the registration of facts;

Availability of technical means.

Write down only the facts, not their interpretation.

· Each remark, action should not be perceived in isolation, but in connection with other actions, words, accompanying phenomena.

· All entries must be processed immediately. Do not accumulate a large amount of observation material, since processing requires more time than the observation itself.

For example, an observation protocol for a training session might look like this:

The observer records in the protocol only what directly or indirectly contributes to the solution of the problem under study. These are true facts that most accurately represent a particular situation.

In addition to minutes, other forms of record keeping are possible, such as a diary kept chronologically and, if possible, without interruption. Diaries are usually used for long-term observation. Technical means such as a tape recorder, a hidden camera, etc., are of great help in observation.

The results of observation must necessarily be supported by data obtained using other methods of psychological and pedagogical research.

EXPERIMENT

LECTURE PLAN

1. Experiment as the main method of psychological research.

2. Types of experiment.

3. Reasons for distortion of experimental data.

4. Quasi-experimental studies.

E experiment from lat. "trial, experience" - the leading method of scientific knowledge, including psychological research, is aimed at identifying cause-and-effect relationships. It is characterized by the creation of optimal conditions for the study of certain phenomena, as well as a purposeful and controlled change in these conditions.

Similar information.

A test is a special type of non-experimental research, which is a special task or system of tasks. The subject performs a task, the execution time of which is usually taken into account. Tests are used in the study of abilities, the level of mental development, skills, the level of assimilation of knowledge, as well as in the study of individual characteristics of the course of mental processes.

Testing is usually a time-limited test that measures the level of development or the severity of certain mental properties of an individual, group or community.

Test classification:

• 1) in form:
  • a) oral and written;
  • b) individual and group;
  • c) hardware and blank;
  • d) subject and computer;
  • e) verbal and non-verbal (task performance is based on non-verbal abilities (perceptual, motor), and the subjects' speech abilities are included in them only in terms of understanding instructions. Non-verbal tests include most instrumental tests, subject, drawing, etc.);
• 2) by content:
  • a) studying the properties of intelligence;
  • b) abilities;
  • c) individual personality characteristics, etc.;
• 3) according to the goals of testing:
  • a) tests for self-knowledge are not strictly scientific, have a small volume, they are distinguished by the simplicity of testing and calculating results, they are published in popular newspapers, magazines, book publications;
  • b) tests for diagnosing by a specialist are the most rigorous in terms of standardizing the testing procedure and structure, the content of test tasks (stimulus material), as well as information processing and interpretation, they are characterized by validity, they must have standards for basic groups;
  • c) tests for examination are carried out at the initiative of officials (for example, an administration that wants to test its employees for professional suitability or hire the most deserving ones with the best test results), the requirements are similar to the requirements for tests for specialists. A feature of these tests is the use of questions that minimize insincere answers;
• 4) due to time constraints:
  • a) tests that take into account the speed of tasks;
  • b) performance tests;
• 5) according to the methodological principle underlying the methodology:
  • a) objective tests;
  • b) standardized self-report methods, including:
    • - questionnaire tests consist of several dozen questions (statements), regarding which the subjects make their judgments (as a rule, “yes” or “no”, less often a three-alternative choice of answers);
    • - open questionnaires, suggesting a follow-up

tent analysis;

• - scale techniques built according to the type of Ch. Osgood's semantic differential, classification methods;
• - individually-oriented techniques such as role-playing repertoire grids;
• c) projective techniques, in which the stimulus material presented to the subjects is characterized by uncertainty, suggesting a variety of interpretations (Rorschach test, TAT, Szondi, etc.);
• d) dialogic (interactive) techniques (conversations, interviews, diagnostic games).

Requirements for test methods of research:

• 1) representativeness (representativeness) is the possibility of disseminating the results obtained in the study of a sample set of objects to the entire set of these objects;
• 2) the uniqueness of the methodology - is characterized by the extent to which the data obtained with its help reflect changes in precisely and only the property for which this methodology is used. Usually, this quality is checked by repeated measurements;
• 3) validity (validity) - this is the validity of the conclusions obtained as a result of applying this methodology;
• 4) accuracy - the ability of the methodology to sensitively respond to the slightest changes in the evaluated property that occur during a socio-psychological diagnostic experiment;
• 5) reliability - the possibility of obtaining stable indicators using this technique.

A test study is distinguished by a relatively simple procedure, it is short-term, carried out without complex technical devices, and requires the simplest equipment (often it is just a form with texts of tasks). The result of the test solution allows a quantitative expression and thus opens up the possibility of mathematical processing. We also note that in the process of test research, the influence of numerous conditions that somehow affect the results is not taken into account - the mood of the subject, his well-being, attitude to testing. Unacceptable are attempts to set the limit, the ceiling of the capabilities of a given person, to predict, predict the level of his future success with the help of tests.

Tests are specialized methods of psychodiagnostic examination, using which you can get an accurate quantitative or qualitative characteristic of the phenomenon under study. Tests differ from other research methods in that they imply a clear procedure for collecting and processing primary data, as well as the originality of their subsequent interpretation. With the help of tests, you can study and compare the psychology of different people, give differentiated and comparable assessments.

Test options: test questionnaire, test task, projective tests

• 1. The test questionnaire is based on a system of pre-designed, carefully selected and tested questions in terms of their validity and reliability, the answers to which can be used to judge the psychological qualities of the subjects.
• 2. The test task involves an assessment of the psychology and behavior of a person based on what he does. In tests of this type, the subject is offered a series of special tasks, the results of which are used to judge the presence or absence and the degree of development of the quality being studied.

The test questionnaire and test task are applicable to people of different ages, belonging to different cultures, having different levels of education, different professions and different life experiences. This is their positive side. And the disadvantage is that when using tests, the subject can consciously influence the results at will, especially if he knows in advance how the test works and how his psychology and behavior will be evaluated based on its results. In addition, the test questionnaire and test task are not applicable in cases where psychological properties and characteristics are subject to study, the existence of which the subject cannot be completely sure, does not realize or consciously does not want to admit their presence. Such characteristics are, for example, many negative personal qualities and behavioral motives.

3. Projective tests. Such tests are based on the projection mechanism, according to which a person tends to attribute unconscious personal qualities, especially shortcomings, to other people. Projective tests are designed to study the psychological and behavioral characteristics of people that cause a negative attitude. Using tests of this kind, the psychology of the subject is judged on the basis of how he perceives the surrounding team and the environment in which he is located.

This drawback applies to all research methods based on self-control, i.e. associated with the use of verbal and behavioral consciously controlled reactions.

Using the projective test, the psychologist introduces the subject into an imaginary, plot-indefinite situation that is subject to arbitrary interpretation. Such a situation can be, for example, the search for a certain meaning in the picture, which depicts who knows what kind of people, it is not clear what they are doing. It is necessary to answer the questions of who these people are, what they are concerned about, what they think, and what will happen next. Based on the meaningful interpretation of the answers, they judge the own psychology of the respondents.

Projective-type tests impose increased requirements on the level of education and intellectual maturity of the subjects, and this is the main practical limitation of their applicability. In addition, such tests require a lot of special training and high professional qualifications on the part of the psychologist himself.

4. Additional methods. Compared with a conversation, which is characterized by lengthy, slow accumulation of data during mass surveys, questioning is more economical in time, which ensures its widespread use in practice.

The method of expert assessments involves a survey of specialists about certain elements of the work situation or the personality of a professional in order to build a responsible conclusion. Expert assessment can be individual, when its subject is one person, and group. One of the varieties of group assessment is the method of generalizing independent characteristics, which is used to describe the professionally important qualities of a particular professional.

A specific method of expert evaluation of a professional used in labor psychology is the method of critical incidents - its essence lies in the fact that employees who know the profession well give real examples of the behavior of specialists that characterize high or low efficiency of professional activity.

The anamnesis method involves the collection of data on the history of the development of a particular person as a subject of labor activity. It is usually used in professional consulting to determine the degree of stability of motives, to identify certain abilities and personality traits that are not amenable to direct observation, to build forecasts of a person's professional career. This method is applicable to the problem of retrospective analysis of situations of choice of professions, professional reorientation, typology of professional career, little developed in our science.

There are certain rules that must be followed when starting the study:

1. The research methods used must be scientific, i.e. verified repeatedly to obtain truthful, objective, reliable and provable information that can be used for the benefit of the examined. Only then can they be used again.

The modern development of psychology allows for an alternative study of the causes of the emergence of mental phenomena. Pluralism can in this case provoke an unscientific interpretation of the impact of one person on another, or, for example, the desire to explain the needs of the child by the influence of heredity, and character traits as follows: “It’s written that way, you can’t do anything,” etc.

2. The methods used must be valid and must give reliable, truthful information. Methods for studying mental phenomena that have appeared in the process and as a result of activity, communication, should provide the qualitative information that they are aimed at. Validity combines the purpose, standard, and reality of the research being conducted. The psychologist needs to understand that the research method used must be consistent with the expected results.

The lack of validity manifests itself in different ways: when the task is too complex and does not reflect the level of age or mental development; when it examines only one detail, but claims to illustrate a general property; when the task does not correspond to the level of national culture.

There are rules for checking the validity of a method: first, one or another method is tested on a small sample or on the researcher himself, then a group of experts who are most competent in this matter are involved. You can also use any fragment of the technique. In any case, the psychologist is obliged to use proven methods obtained in the professional community.

3. The method should contribute obtaining unambiguous information, which can be confirmed by other means of research.

An educational psychologist needs to be sure that the data obtained during the study are significant, they can be trusted and used for correction purposes. Very often he strives to use as many methods as possible, which naturally highlight a diverse picture of the quality examined. This leads to the fact that the main properties and their causes are dissolved in the context of many features. Sometimes it happens that when the situation changes, the method leads to different results.

If a teacher conducts a study (most often a survey), the children behave as usual. A psychologist comes - the picture changes. Some children are curious, they “solve scientific problems” with pleasure, others can only perform a research task alone with a psychologist, being afraid to advertise their actions. It also happens that personality questionnaires provide information that is not detected during observation.

4. Research methods must be interdependent despite their independence. The logic and consistency of their use should be pointed out: what the psychologist needs to do first, what at the end, why the chosen research method is used, what are its stages, what information should be checked and how. It is important to reveal the mental phenomenon consistently, thoroughly, multifaceted. It is necessary and qualified to operate with the chosen method.

Currently, there are many materials about the study of techniques "at home". Questionnaires and other tasks that have not passed the validity check can be not beneficial, but harmful. A professional psychologist must always be very careful in choosing the method of research, because it deals with the human psyche.

5. Method should extract representative information. This is the correspondence of the characteristics obtained as a result of selective observation to those that characterize the entire aggregate sample. Representativeness - the representativeness of data obtained in one way or another.

In order to draw a conclusion about the development of the verbal-logical memory of primary school students, it is not enough to study its features only in first graders. Sometimes a psychologist examines some aspect, involving ten people in the work, and draws a conclusion about a hundred subjects. The more complex and weighty the research task, the more subjects it should be solved with more accurate methods. The method of studying any phenomenon should show an essential property in some subjects, and then be confirmed in others.

6. Clarity of the requirements presented to the examinees. Sometimes you can see how the instruction is incorrectly reported, how the task is complicated or simplified. For example, a psychologist says to a child: “Now let’s see if you are smart or just seem like that, otherwise in class you behave as if no one can cope with you.” It turns out in this case not a scientific study, but its falsification, and even with a threat and in the form of punishment.

It happens that the subject does not understand what is required of him, because he does not understand the language, professional slang. For example: "Answer the questions and I will tell you whether you are an introvert or an extrovert."

7. Ongoing research, should not be spontaneous, random and chaotic. A research program is needed, which reflects a clear goal, objectives, hypotheses and proposed research methods. The program also indicates the research sample, justifies why it is required to study a certain number of people, who will conduct the research - a psychologist or experimental teachers, how the results will be discussed, whether it is necessary to involve other specialists in the research - for example, is it supposed to involve various school services (methodological speech therapy, medical).

Methodology and methods of psychological research

2.1. Basic requirements for methods of psychological research

To solve the set of problems described in the previous chapter, science has a developed system of means, directions, ways, and techniques.

Method This is the path of scientific knowledge. As one of the founders of Soviet psychology S.L. Rubinstein (1779-1960) is the way in which the subject of science is known.

Methodology - this is a variant, a private implementation of the method in specific conditions: organizational, social, historical.

A set or system of methods and techniques of any science is not random, arbitrary. They are formed historically, modified, developed, obeying certain patterns, methodological rules.

Methodology- this is not only the doctrine of methods, the rules for their choice or use. This is a systematic description of the very philosophy, ideology, strategy and tactics of scientific research, standing above the private theory of science. The methodology sets what exactly,as and for what we explore how we interpret the results obtained, how we implement them in practice. Research can be, for example, absolutely correct methodologically, but illiterate, untenable theoretically and methodologically, and therefore essentially erroneous. Therefore, compliance with certain methodological requirements, or principles, is a necessary condition for the effectiveness of scientific psychological research.

The first methodological requirement is the need to match the method used with the theoretical beforestatement about the subject Sciences. This position is clearly traced and illustrated on the material discussed in Ch. 2 historical stages of changing ideas about the subject of psychology. For example, the soul can only be studied by self-observation - introspection. In the study of the phenomena of consciousness, conditioned reflexes or behavior, the method of experiment becomes acceptable, although its methodological implementation in such cases can be fundamentally different. If we assume that the psyche is always a conscious and verbal representation of the carrier itself, then to study it, it is enough to ask the subject appropriate questions through verbal tests, questionnaires. The main thing is the understanding that any method of psychology singles out only a particular aspect of its subject, specific facts or manifestations, features of their existence and functioning. But one cannot take the particular for the general, the phenomenon for the essence and reliably judge, for example, the properties of a person's temperament on the basis of his answers to self-evaluative questions about the speed of movement of arms or legs.

The method used must be objective those. the result obtained must have the property of verifiability, repeatability, therefore, in any psychological study, it is required to ensure unity external and internal manifestations of the psyche. For example, the results of the experiment are supplemented by the subject's self-report data, and objective physiological parameters are correlated with verbal test responses. The methodological expression of this approach is the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity developed in domestic psychology, which will be discussed in subsequent chapters.

When studying the psychic, realization is desirable genetilogical or evolutionary approach, i.e. study of a phenomenon in the process of its genesis, development, in the process of purposeful formation. This is the methodology of a “longitudinal cut” (in time), the logic of a formative, transforming experiment, clearly worked out, for example, in the scientific school of P.Ya. Halperin (see section IV).

In almost any psychological research, it is necessary to take into account social, cultural, historical factors in which the psyche really exists. Each person carries not only individual, but also social: family, profession, nation. The human psyche is essentially social, so the results of social interactions can manifest themselves in the most unexpected and significant way. For example, people should not be interviewed in the presence of their boss. It is impossible to use in Russia an unadapted foreign technique. When setting a school mark, social comparison of students is necessary.

5. Each method used by psychology must be, on the one hand, deeply individual, because every person is unique. On the other hand, scientific generalizations, systematized conclusions, extended recommendations. How many and which subjects should be taken in order to obtain reliable conclusions? What methods should be selected and what mathematical apparatus should be used?

Such questions are solved in psychology with the help of probability theory and mathematical statistics. This is a special probabilistic methodology, according to which there are no unambiguous, linear cause-and-effect relationships in the world. One system of conditions corresponds to a certain varying set of coherent consequences, subject to the laws of probability.

6. Another requirement for the methods of psychology is complexity and interdisciplinarity. Any serious scientific problem is interdisciplinary, therefore, it requires the participation of specialists of different profiles for its solution: psychologists, teachers, philosophers, sociologists, lawyers, doctors, and so on, depending on the tasks being solved. Each science brings some specific aspects to psychology, but the mental is not reducible either to the social, or to the physiological, or to the behavioral, or to their sum. The requirement of complexity also means the presence of a variety of complementary research methods and techniques that are adequate to the idea of ​​the subject and the problems being solved. There are no good or bad methods. Each is specific and in some way irreplaceable in the general structure of scientific knowledge. In addition, modern psychological research is characterized by consistency, due to the complex, hierarchical structure of the psyche itself.