Question. Types of human labor activity. Labor activity. The process of labor activity. Types of labor activity
In this article we will consider the main types of human labor activity. The information for many will be new and startling. If you don’t understand something the first time, re-read the article later. Go;)
Types of human labor activity. What you didn't know
We know that two things are never enough for a person - money and health. Even if he is happy with everything, he is unlikely to refuse an additional portion of both the first and second.
As a result, almost all of us consider our salary to be small, and even if we increase it, it will cease to please us very soon. How to behave in this eternal race?
“If you successfully choose work and put your whole soul into it, then happiness will find you itself”
Konstantin Ushinsky
It's not just about our greed - there are quite objective reasons that oblige us to constantly increase our income. Inflation, let's say, has not yet been canceled, prices are constantly growing, which means that our incomes should at least keep pace with this growth (or better, overtake it).
You can give a million different pieces of advice, but, first of all, you need to look at the problem "from above" and understand what our current status is. This is important, if only because not every movement is development. If we are moving in the wrong direction, then we must first change it, and only then take up the oars and row with all our might.
So how do we all classify?
At the very first approximation, we can be divided into two main types - those who create a business, and those who work in this business as an employee. But not everything is so simple.
In this article, we will sort through the topic of human labor activity, give you knowledge that you will not get anywhere else (or almost nowhere else). After reading the article, you will look at the work of people differently. We answer 😉
4 types of human labor activity
So, human activity is divided into 4 types. No more, no less.
The role of the employee
Let's start with the largest category of wage recipients - employees. Their work is simple and understandable.
Key point: the employee does not control the work process in which he participates. "I do, others control."
Even if the activity of an employee requires a huge set of professional skills and abilities (sometimes quite complex), it is enough for most of them to do their job well, get moral and material satisfaction from this, after which they can safely go home to cut with a jigsaw or look at their collection of stamps.
The hired worker is for the most part divorced from the final results of his company's activity - this is the main thing that distinguishes him from other categories of workers.
This isolation is the reason for a whole bunch of pluses and minuses of a hired position.
Employment: the pros
The advantages include, first of all, the ability to put all business issues out of your head at the end of the working day. For people with an unstable nervous system, prone to unnecessary experiences or unmotivated fears, the choice of this status is, without exaggeration, a matter of life and death.
If you take to heart all the troubles that arise in the production process of a large company, then you need to have nerves of steel to endure all this without serious health consequences.
Separately, mention should be made of those employees for whom a hobby and a profession are combined in their work. They have the opportunity to do what they love and still get paid for it!
We can meet such people among teachers, scientists, engineers, doctors - all that intellectual elite, without which society does not develop, but, alas, their wages do not always correspond to their contribution to the development of the country.
These people are usually full of optimism and energy, they in all their glory illustrate the thesis that the main thing when choosing a profession is that work brings joy. And the money will come. Unfortunately, this doesn't always work.
Cons of being hired
Hiring has its downsides. The main thing is that the remuneration of employees almost does not depend on the results of the work of the company as a whole. You did a good job or not, whether you were rooting for your site or were purely formal - if you completed a certain minimum of the actions required of you, did not “fill up” the site - get paid and be satisfied.
The trouble with this approach is that most employees lose any motivation to show zeal or any creative and non-standard approaches in their work. Why strain if no one will appreciate it - neither financially nor careerally?
In this case, the employee is "torn off" from the company.
Cool article about team relationships:
Hired leader
The degree of responsibility of hired managers is many times greater than that of "labor ants". The results of the company's work directly depend on their decisions, on their behavior, on their words.
Often, the salaries of managers also depend on the final indicators of the company - through a system of bonuses, bonuses, and other payments. And if so, then the degree of involvement of bosses in the work is already fundamentally different.
Many of them cannot afford to put all work matters out of their heads, even when they come home.
Sometimes the area of work entrusted to them is so large that for them it becomes almost a matter of a lifetime (although the hired status has not gone anywhere - these people are still not the masters of their business).
If an employee is hungry for a promotion, he must ask himself if he is ready to dramatically increase the workload of his head with production issues in exchange for extra bills?
The one who takes the most risks gets the most. Any boss takes on much more risks and is ready to answer for them on a completely different level.
"Great people are fed by work"
Seneca Aucius Annaeus
Therefore, if it seems to someone that he is being “pinched”, then he should soberly look around - perhaps he just belongs to the same category of happy employees that was mentioned above. A person has achieved a certain perfection in his work and receives a decent salary for this. So is it worth chasing a crane if the titmouse is already so plump and beautiful?
Moreover, even a simple worker always has the opportunity to increase his salary.
If an employee realizes that his salary is lagging behind the average market indicators, then you need to talk with your boss about this topic. Wage labor is a deal. An employee gives the company his time and skills, the company pays him money.
Often, managers even begin to have more respect for such employees who regularly demand promotion.
employee development
There is only one way. You need to become the best. Gradually take on more responsibility, solve more work issues.
According to the latest data, only 25% of the working time people in the offices are doing things that are useful for the company.
Instead of spreading that 25% over the entire work day, the employee should try to get all the important things done at least before lunch. Then he will have several valuable hours freed up, during which he will be able to take on additional work, expand his area of responsibility.
We need to capture adjacent areas, break into them with fresh ideas and approaches.
In this situation, the employee will not be noticed, he will become a top employee of his company. He will be provided with a decent salary and a prestigious position.
Everyone needs people who can solve problems. Employers fight for them.
The role of the freelancer
The key point: the freelancer controls the workflow, and participates in it himself. "I do, I control."
In the modern world there has been a substitution of concepts. The vast majority of freelancers consider themselves businessmen because they don't know the meaning of the word "freelancer".
Let's explain on the fingers: if a person sticks his hands into work processes (finish a report, file a website, optimize working hours, etc.) - he is a freelancer. Dot. Who is a businessman, read in the next paragraph.
Freelancing is a type of activity when "the legs feed the wolf."
The peculiarity of the work of a freelancer is that he receives income only when he works himself. His income is like a wagon on rails. As long as the freelancer pushes this car forward, it goes. As soon as a freelancer stops stressing himself (for whatever reason), his affairs immediately go down the drain.
Even a banal flu leads to the fact that a freelancer's income can decrease significantly. He has no sick leaves and paid holidays. As you stomp - so you pop.
The freelancer is solely responsible for their results. His material well-being depends only on him.
As a freelancer, the risk-to-reward ratio is no match for even a very large hired manager. Here is the real risk. After all, the worst thing that can happen to a leader is dismissal (unless, of course, he was stealing, then the conversation will be in another place and on other topics). But being fired is not the end of life. You can always find another job.
freelance life
If a novice freelancer for the sake of his idea, for example, quits a hired job, he risks, without exaggeration, everything. Starting a business, a freelancer puts his whole life at stake, since he cannot be sure that what he has invented will work, start generating income, and develop.
“We are denied long life; let us leave the works that will prove that we have lived!”
Pliny the Elder
And at first, a freelancer only invests and invests: money, labor, time, nerves. Whether he will receive dividends from these investments is unknown. Therefore, the main qualities of a freelancer are an unshakable faith in success and diligence.There is no way without them, because a freelancer always has a lot of problems.
The best article on the web about hyperresponsibility. Click on the picture and read:
It often happens that money for the development of a business is spent not on one’s own, but on borrowed money, and a loan was taken, for example, on the security of housing ... Or it is difficult to find worthy assistants ... These assistants also need to pay salaries on time, take into account taxes, and not miss rent payments (if any ) ... Also, the family needs to allocate money for life ...
As a result, a person cannot say at all where his work ends and his personal life begins. Such is the life of a freelancer.
But freelancing has another, more pleasant side. Namely, all income belongs to the freelancer himself. Actually, for the sake of these incomes, everything is started.
It is this freedom in decision-making that attracts people when they create their own business. Above them there are no leaders who would dictate what they should do. A man to himself: both the boss, and the executor, and the middle manager, and the inspection body.
Also, any freelancer is warmed by the thought of the future. This is a very important question, which, unfortunately, employees do not always ask themselves. After all, their professional age ends at the moment when, due to various circumstances, they retire. And from that moment on, the only thing they can count on is the capital accumulated during their work (if any) plus a standard pension.
The freelancer, on the other hand, dreams of something else, because if successful, the business can be developed to such an extent that it will be possible to transfer it to the management of a hired director (that same hired manager), and to remain only the owner of the business with all the profits from it. The best freelancers become entrepreneurs.
Find out how to become a top freelancer here:
Freelance development
A freelancer must become different from others, not be afraid to experiment. You need to choose a niche and do something extraordinary. This confirms the experience of freelancers who have achieved unrealistic success.
A freelancer needs to create his own unique style so that people can easily distinguish him from the rest of the gray mass. The most sought-after freelancers are creative, unusual, amazing people.
And let 95% of people spit on him, but the remaining 5% will be ecstatic from the work of a freelancer and will gladly pay him money.
The role of a businessman
Key point: the businessman controls the work process, but does not participate in it himself. "I don't do, I control."
If a person has some kind of business, and he somehow participates in its working processes, he is not a businessman. He is a freelancer. Recall that freelancers are those who control the processes and at the same time participate in them themselves.
A businessman is a dad for his company. He does not climb where they are not asked, while leading the company forward. He thinks strategically.
Businessman is building a business. Business is a system, a businessman needs to set it up so that it can work without his direct participation. He manages it, bears full responsibility for it, but does not interfere in its work.
The duty of a businessman is to solve the problems of the organization. Because no one but him will solve them.
His business is his life. In the morning, afternoon, evening and night, on weekdays and weekends - he must always take off and run to solve the problems that have arisen. The businessman is busy around the clock.
Not everyone can do it. Agree, in order to withstand the entire onslaught of problems, you need to have a special character warehouse. By the way, those who did not shine at school or institute often have such a set of personal qualities.
Your business is serious. This is something that can be passed on to children. This is something that can generate income even when a person is not able to “plow” daily from morning to evening. And it is precisely on the basis of these opportunities that the businessman takes risks.
In addition, the profit of a businessman is much higher than that of an employee or freelancer. Some of the successes of businessmen can turn anyone's head!
But business is such a thing that can burst overnight for a variety of reasons. And, if this happens, then all employees of the enterprise will quickly find a job. But the owner will be left with nothing, he will have to start everything from the very beginning.
Businessman development
"If you don't manage your business, your business will manage you"
Bertie Forbes
A businessman should always strive for stability. He must bring each of his undertakings to the system so that it works without his direct participation.
A successful businessman must develop his own business model and go to conquer other markets with it. For example, if a person was selling refrigerators, he should go and sell pencils with this business model. This will give you a wow effect.
Also, the words of a businessman should not diverge from the deed.
The role of the investor
The most difficult form of human employment. We will not delve into it, we will consider the concept of "investor" conceptually.What does an investor do?
Key point: the investor does not participate in the work processes and does not control them. "I don't do, I don't control."
The life of an investor is a constant search for ways to increase their assets.
A practical investor should invest his money only in systems or in people who can bring things to a system. You can’t invest in freelancers, this is a huge mistake. Money is invested only in business or in something that can become one in the shortest possible time.
Also, the duty of the investor is to attract other investors or other businessmen to the business who can somehow help. Instead of just leaving the project with money, you need to constantly “throw” smart people into it, new money, fresh ideas. An investor who is ready to support his projects is doomed to success.
Investor Development
An investor must have several projects where he invests. It is better that they are businesses.
If an investor invests in startups, that is, in projects that are not a business, but can become one, then he must understand that the probability of a startup taking off is no more than 10%. Therefore, you need to invest in several startups at once, minimizing risks.
A skillful investor invests in 10 projects or more.
“Don't look for a needle in a haystack. Just buy the whole haystack!”
John Bogle
Types of human labor activity. Conclusion
So, we have considered the types of labor activity of a person. There are only 4 of them. If you hear something else somewhere, know that you are being deceived.
Now you distinguish the difference between them, understand the pros and cons of different ways of obtaining material wealth. If you apply this knowledge in life, you will be successful.
Finally, the best short video about money. Relevant for all 4 categories.
P.S. Don't confuse freelancing and business anymore 😉
FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION
KAZAN STATE TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
TEST
name of the discipline "Psychology of labor »
Types of labor activity
Student 425381 Galimova L.R.
Teacher Cheremiskina I.I.
Kazan 2009
Introduction 3
1. Definition of activity 4
2. Types of human activity 8
2.1 Work as an activity 9
2.2 Doctrine and its features 10
2.3 Communication as an activity 13
2.4 Play as an activity 14
References 16
Introduction
The main, purely external difference between living matter and inanimate, higher forms of life from lower, more developed living beings from less developed ones is that the former are much more mobile and active than the latter. Life in all its forms is connected with movements, and as it develops, motor activity acquires more and more perfect forms. Elementary, simple living beings are much more active than the most complexly organized plants. This refers to the variety and speed of movements, the ability to move in space at various distances. The simplest can only live in the aquatic environment, amphibians go to land, worm-like live on the ground and underground, birds rise to the sky. A person is able to create conditions for himself and live in any environment and anywhere in the world (and in recent years even outside the Earth). Not a single living being is able to compare with it in diversity, distribution and forms of activity.
The activity of plants is practically limited by the metabolism with the environment. Animal activity includes elementary forms of exploration of this environment and learning. Human activity is the most diverse. In addition to all kinds and forms characteristic of animals, it contains a special form called activity.
1. CONCEPT AND STRUCTURE OF HUMAN ACTIVITY
Activity can be defined as a specific type of human activity aimed at the knowledge and creative transformation of the surrounding world, including oneself and the conditions of one's existence. In activity, a person creates objects of material and spiritual culture, transforms his abilities, preserves and improves nature, builds society, creates something that would not exist in nature without his activity. The creative nature of human activity is manifested in the fact that thanks to it, he goes beyond the limits of his natural limitations, i.e. surpasses its own genotypically determined possibilities. As a result of the productive, creative nature of his activity, man has created sign systems, tools for influencing himself and nature. Using these tools, he built modern society, cities, machines, with their help he produced new commodities, material and spiritual culture, and ultimately transformed himself. The historical progress that has taken place over the past few tens of thousands of years owes its origin precisely to activity, and not to the improvement of the biological nature of people.
Modern man lives surrounded by such objects, none of which is a pure creation of nature.
To all such objects, especially at work and at home, the hands and mind of a person turned out to be applied to one degree or another, so that they can be considered the material embodiment of human abilities. In them, as it were, the achievements of the mind of people are objectified. The assimilation of the ways of handling such objects, their inclusion in the activity acts as a person's own development. In all this, human activity differs from the activity of animals, which do not produce anything of the kind: no clothes, no furniture, no cars, no sign systems, no tools, no vehicles, and much more. To meet their needs, animals use only what nature has provided them.
In other words, human activity manifests itself and continues in creations, it is productive, and not just consumer in nature.
Having generated and continuing to improve consumer goods, a person, in addition to abilities, develops his needs. Once connected with the objects of material and spiritual culture, the needs of people acquire a cultural character.
Human activity is fundamentally different from animal activity in another respect. If the activity of animals is caused by natural needs, then human activity is mainly generated and supported by artificial needs that arise due to the appropriation of the achievements of the cultural and historical development of people of the present and previous generations. These are the needs for knowledge (scientific and artistic), creativity, moral self-improvement, and others.
The forms and methods of organizing human activity also differ from the activity of animals. Almost all of them are related to complex motor skills and habits that animals do not have - skills and abilities acquired as a result of conscious, purposeful, organized learning. From early childhood, a child is specially taught how to use household items (fork, spoon, clothes, chair, table, soap, toothbrush, pencil, paper, etc.) in a human way, various tools that transform the movements of the limbs given by nature . They begin to obey the logic of the objects with which a person is dealing. There is an objective activity that differs from the natural activity of animals.
Activity differs not only from activity, but also from behavior. Behavior is not always purposeful, does not imply the creation of a specific product, and is often passive. Activity is always purposeful, active, aimed at creating some product. Behavior is spontaneous (“where it will lead”), activity is organized; behavior is chaotic, activity is systematic.
Human activity has the following main characteristics: motive, purpose, subject, structure and means. The motive of activity is that which induces it, for the sake of which it is carried out. The motive is usually a specific need, which is satisfied in the course and with the help of this activity.
The motives of human activity can be very different: organic, functional, material, social, spiritual. Organic motives are aimed at satisfying the natural needs of the organism (in humans, at creating conditions that are most conducive to this). Such motives are associated with the growth, self-preservation and development of the organism. This is the production of food, housing, clothing, etc. Functional motives are satisfied with the help of various cultural forms of activity, such as games and sports. Material motives induce a person to activity aimed at creating household items, various things and tools, directly in the form of products that serve natural needs. Social motives give rise to various activities aimed at taking a certain place in society, gaining recognition and respect from the surrounding people. Spiritual motives underlie those activities that are associated with self-improvement of a person. The type of activity is usually determined by its dominant motive (dominant because any human activity is polymotivated, that is, it is stimulated by several different motives).
The goal of an activity is its product. It can be a real physical object created by a person, certain knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the course of activity, a creative result (thought, idea, theory, work of art).
The purpose of an activity is not equivalent to its motive, although sometimes the motive and purpose of an activity may coincide with each other. Different activities that have the same goal (end result) may be motivated and supported by different motives. On the contrary, a number of activities with different ultimate goals may be based on the same motives. For example, reading a book for a person can act as a means of satisfying the material (demonstrate knowledge and get a well-paid job for it), social (show off knowledge in the circle of significant people, win their favor), spiritual (expand one's horizons, rise to a higher level of moral development). ) needs. Activities as varied as acquiring fashionable, prestigious items, reading literature, caring for appearance, developing good manners may ultimately pursue the same goal: to win someone's favor at all costs.
The object of activity is that with which it directly deals. So, for example, the subject of cognitive activity is any kind of information, the subject of educational activity is knowledge, skills, and the subject of labor activity is the created material product.
Every activity has a certain structure. It usually identifies actions and operations as the main components of the activity. An action is a part of an activity that has a completely independent, conscious human goal. For example, an action included in the structure of cognitive activity can be called receiving a book, reading it; the actions that are part of the labor activity can be considered familiarity with the task, the search for the necessary tools and materials, the development of the project, the technology for manufacturing the item, etc.; actions associated with creativity are the formulation of the idea, its phased implementation in the product of creative work.
An operation is a way to carry out an action. How many different ways to perform an action, so many different operations can be distinguished. The nature of the operation depends on the conditions for performing the action, on the skills and abilities available to the person, on the available tools and means for performing the action. Different people, for example, remember information and write differently. This means that they carry out the action of writing a text or memorizing material using various operations. Operations preferred by a person characterize his individual style of activity.
The means of carrying out activities for a person are the tools that he uses when performing certain actions and operations. The development of the means of activity leads to its improvement, as a result of which the activity becomes more productive and of high quality.
The motivation of activity in the course of its development does not remain unchanged. So, for example, other motives may appear in labor or creative activity over time, and the former fade into the background. Sometimes an action, previously included in the activity, can stand out from it and acquire an independent status, turn into an activity with its own motive. In this case, we note the birth of a new activity.
With age, as a person develops, a change in the motivation of his activity occurs. If a person changes as a person, then the motives of his activity are transformed. The progressive development of man is characterized by the movement of motives towards their ever greater spiritualization (from organic to material, from material to social, from social to creative, from creative to moral).
Every human activity has external and internal components. Internal include anatomical and physiological structures and processes involved in the management of activity by the central nervous system, as well as psychological processes and conditions included in the regulation of activity. External components include a variety of movements associated with the practical implementation of activities.
The ratio of internal and external components of activity is not constant. With the development and transformation of activity, a systematic transition of external components to internal ones is carried out. It is accompanied by their internalization and automation. If there are any difficulties in the activity, when it is restored, associated with violations of the internal components, a reverse transition occurs - exteriorization: the reduced, automated components of the activity unfold, appear outside, the internal ones again become external, consciously controlled.
2.TYPES OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES
A modern person has many different types of activities, the number of which approximately corresponds to the number of existing needs (taking into account the multi-motivated activity). In order to present and describe all these activities, it is necessary to list the most important needs for a given person. But such a task in practice is not easy, since the number of diverse needs is large and they vary individually.
It is easier to determine the main parameters in accordance with which it is possible to describe the system of human needs, and then, using them, to characterize the types of activities inherent in a particular person. There are three such parameters: strength, quantity and quality of needs.
Under the power of need, we mean the value of the corresponding need for a person, its relevance, frequency of occurrence and incentive potential. A stronger need is more significant, occurs more often, dominates other needs and makes a person behave in such a way that this particular need is satisfied in the first place.
Quantity is the number of various needs that a person has and from time to time become relevant to him. There are people who have a relatively small number of needs, and they quite successfully cope with their systematic satisfaction, enjoying life. But there are those who have many different, sometimes contradictory, incompatible needs. The actualization of such needs requires the simultaneous inclusion of a person in various activities, and conflicts often arise between multidirectional needs and there is a shortage of time needed to satisfy them. Such people usually complain about the lack of time and experience dissatisfaction from life, in particular from the fact that they do not have time to do everything on time.
Under the originality of the need, we mean objects and objects with the help of which one or another need can be sufficiently fully satisfied in a given person, as well as the preferred way to satisfy this and other needs. For example, the cognitive need of one person can be satisfied as a result of the systematic viewing of only entertainment programs on television. For another, to fully satisfy a similar need, it is not enough to read newspapers, books, listen to the radio and watch TV shows. The third, in addition to the above, needs systematic communication with people - carriers of useful information of a cognitive nature, as well as inclusion in interesting independent creative and search work.
In accordance with the described parameters that characterize the system of human needs, it is possible to individually present and describe the totality of activities that are characteristic of a single person and groups of people. In this case, for each of these parameters and for the variety of their combinations, it is possible to compile and propose classifications of types of human activity.
But there is another way: to generalize and highlight the main activities that are common to all people. They will correspond to the general needs that can be found in almost all people without exception, or rather, to the types of social human activity in which each person inevitably joins in the process of his individual development. These are communication, play, teaching and work. They should be considered as the main activities of people.
2.1 Communication as an activity
Communication is the first type of activity that occurs in the process of individual development of a person, followed by play, learning and work. All these activities are of a developmental nature, i.e. when the child is included and actively participates in them, his intellectual and personal development takes place. Communication is considered as a type of activity aimed at the exchange of information between communicating people. It also pursues the goals of establishing mutual understanding, good personal and business relations, providing mutual assistance and teaching and educational influence of people on each other. Communication can be direct and indirect, verbal and non-verbal. In direct communication, people are in direct contact with each other, know and see each other, directly exchange verbal or non-verbal information, without using any auxiliary means for this. In mediated communication, there are no direct contacts between people. They exchange information either through other people or through means of recording and reproducing information (books, newspapers, radio, television, telephone, fax, etc.).
2.2 Play as an activity
A game is a type of activity that does not result in the production of any material or ideal product (with the exception of business and design games for adults and children). Games often have the character of entertainment, they are aimed at getting rest. Sometimes games serve as a means of symbolic relaxation of tensions that have arisen under the influence of the actual needs of a person, which he is not able to weaken in any other way.
There are several types of games: individual and group, subject and story, role-playing and games with rules. Individual games are a type of activity when one person is occupied with the game, group games include several individuals. Object games are associated with the inclusion of any objects in a person's gaming activity. Story games unfold according to a certain scenario, reproducing it in basic detail. Role-playing games allow a person to behave, limited to a specific role that he takes on in the game. Finally, games with rules are governed by a certain system of rules for the behavior of their participants. Often in life there are mixed types of games: object-role-playing, plot-role-playing, story-based games with rules, etc. The relationships that develop between people in the game, as a rule, are artificial in the sense of the word, that they are not taken seriously by others and are not the basis for conclusions about a person. Play behavior and play relationships have little effect on real relationships between people, at least among adults. Nevertheless, games are of great importance in people's lives. For children, games are primarily of developmental importance, while for adults they serve as a means of communication and relaxation. Some forms of gaming activity acquire the character of rituals, training sessions, and sports hobbies. A game , a type of unproductive activity where the motive lies not as a result of it, but in the process itself. In psychology, the first fundamental concept of play was developed by the German philosopher and psychologist K. Gross in the games of animals, he saw the preliminary adaptation (“warning”) of instincts to the conditions of a future life. Before him, the English philosopher G. Spencer expressed his view of the game as a manifestation of "an excess of strength." An essential amendment to the teachings of Gross was the theory of the Austrian psychologist K. Buhler about "functional pleasure" as an internal subjective reason for play. The Dutch zoopsychologist F. Buytendijk came up with the opposite theory of the game to Gross, believing that Iigre is based not on instincts, but on more general primordial drives behind instincts (the drive to liberate, the drive to merge with others and the drive to repeat). In the psychoanalytic concept of the Austrian doctor Z. Freud, the game is considered as the realization of desires repressed from life. In psychology, an approach was developed to the game as a socio-historical phenomenon (L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev, D. B. Elkonin, and others). In particular, children's games are considered as a form of inclusion of a child in the world of human actions and relations, arising at a stage of social development when highly developed forms of labor make it impossible for the child to directly participate in it, while the conditions of upbringing form in him a desire to live together with adults.
Play is a traditional human activity. It is universal in the sense that it has its own history, it is history itself, the focus of human experience and knowledge. Where there is life in one form or another, there will probably also be play. The game acts as a function of human existence, and human culture itself is inseparable from the game.
Historically, there has been the greatest variety of semantic meanings that are invested in the words game, play, player, playing, toy. To define the concept of a game means to highlight the essential features without which it would not be a game proper. Many researchers do not bother to define the concept of a game at all, considering it a self-evident, clear and unambiguously perceived phenomenon. Others limit themselves to a brief enumeration of the most general and superficial features or define it metaphorically. Still others note how difficult it is to identify what exactly makes a game a game. So J. Ortega y Gasset notes: "The concept of" game "taken immediately in full, includes an extraordinary variety of features, components and scales." The same idea is expressed by M.S. Kagan: “There are, however, objective difficulties in studying the game. The fact is that “play” is a collective concept that denotes forms of activity that are very different in nature. ”The comparison of everyday life with a theater in which everyone plays his role is found in many thinkers and has become so commonplace and of little value. Moreover, in one single person a significant number of being someone at the same time is concentrated.
M.S. Kagan, a researcher of human activity, notes: “The game is a material manifestation of people's communication, which here acquires the specific character of “communication for the sake of communication”, becomes, so to speak, “the pure art of communication. Even in those cases when the player is inspired by the desire to defeat a partner, and not just to enjoy the process of the game itself, his actions remain within the sphere of communication.
Culturologist B.S. Yerasov offers the following definition of the game: “A game is an essential and specific type of cultural activity in which, as is often believed, a person acts free from natural dependence and is able to act as a creative object, not subject to any coercion.”
In a modern textbook edited by V.P. Kokhanovsky notes that: “In the course of the game, the individual carries out active cognitive activity, acquires a large amount of new knowledge, absorbing the richness of culture - business games, sports games, acting, etc.”
According to L.S. Vygodsky “... the game is a reasonable and expedient, planned, socially coordinated, a system of behavior or energy expenditure subject to known rules. By this, she reveals her complete analogy with the labor expenditure of energy by an adult, the signs of which completely coincide with the signs of the game, with the exception of the results. Thus, the mental nature of play and labor coincide: "This indicates that play is the child's natural form of labor, its inherent form of activity, preparation for the future life."
O.A. Karabanova believes: "A game is an activity that provides all its participants with the right of free expression."
B.A. Zeltserman and Rogaleva N.V. note: “A game is a special form of life developed or created by society for development. And in this regard, she is a pedagogical creation.
J. Korchak, who devoted many years to teaching, writes: “Calm role-playing games are nothing but the world of children's communication, the exchange of thoughts, this is a small dramatic performance taking place on an invisible stage, where in reality, as in a dream, all children's dreams, the child dreams that it will be like this someday in life, and suffers from the fact that this is not there yet.
N.N. Vorobyov, a specialist in the mathematical theory of the game, notes that the game “... is a very general concept. Having a large volume, it necessarily has a poor content, in whatever aspect we consider it.
E. Bern, the largest Western psychologist and practical psychotherapist, defines the concept of a game through the term transaction - a unit of communication as follows: “Such sequences of transactions based, unlike pastime, not on social, but on individual planning, we call games. Different versions of the same game can underlie family and married life or relationships within different groups for several years. For E. Bern, the game acts as a way of structuring time in a number of other ways as a ritual, pastime, intimacy and activity. Each of the members of the social group seeks to obtain satisfaction from transactions in communication with other members of the group. Therefore, the game, according to Berne, is directly related to transactions and is determined by them: “We call a game a series of hidden additional transactions following each other with a clearly defined and predictable outcome. It is a repetitive set of monotonous transactions, outwardly looking quite plausible, but with hidden motivation; in short, it is a series of moves containing a trap, some kind of catch. Describing the state of the individual's inner world, E. Bern notes: “In the language of psychology, the state of the Self can be described as a system of feelings, defining it as a set of coordinated behavioral patterns. Apparently, each person has a certain, most often limited repertoire of states of his Self, which are not roles, but psychological reality. These states are designated by him as Parent, Adult and Child, that is, at the same time everyone manifests one of these three realities in his activity, passing from one state to another.
2.3 Teaching as an activity.
Teaching acts as a kind of activity, the purpose of which is the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities by a person. Teaching can be organized and carried out in special educational institutions. It can be unorganized and occur along the way, in other activities as their side, additional result. In adults, learning can acquire the character of self-education. Features of educational activity are that it directly serves as a means of psychological development of the individual. S. L. Rubinshtein singled out learning as a special type of activity: “... teaching is distinguished as a special type of activity for which learning, mastering knowledge and skills is not only a result, but also a goal.”
The specificity of the human personality develops on the basis of the acquisition by a person of the experience of mankind in the form of individual assimilation. The development of a person's personality, specifically human abilities, takes place in the process of assimilation of social experience, fixed in the means of production, books, language, etc. The transfer of this experience is carried out in the process of specially organized types of joint activities of the older and younger generations - training and education.
According to the views of A. N. Leontiev, the education and upbringing of the child:
1) there is nothing else than a special type of appropriation and reproduction by him of socio-historically given abilities;
2) the necessary forms and a single process of his mental development.
Exploring the motivational-target aspect of activity, A. N. Leontiev revealed the real meaning of teaching for the student - his attitude to the subject being studied. The decisive role of the personal meaning of acquired knowledge determines the consciousness of educational activity and the priority of education over training. The upbringing of a person gives rise to the motives of the teaching and forms its real meaning.
Highlighting the communication of the older generation with the younger as a necessary condition for the assimilation of social experience, A. N. Leontiev actually designated the approach to learning as a communicative activity.
"Educational activity is the leading one at school age, because, firstly, through it the main relations of the child with society are carried out, and secondly, it is the formation of both the basic qualities of the personality of a child of school age, and individual mental processes"
2.4 Labor as an activity.
Labor occupies a special place in the system of human activity. It was thanks to labor that man built a modern society, created objects of material and spiritual culture, transformed the conditions of his life in such a way that he discovered the prospects for further, practically unlimited development. Labor is carried out in various types and forms of human activity: material and spiritual, external and internal, individual and collective, mental and physical, industrial, educational, sports, etc. First of all, the creation and improvement of labor tools is associated with labor. They, in turn, were a factor in increasing labor productivity, the development of science, industrial production, technical and artistic creativity. Labor is a purposeful human activity, in the process of which, with the help of tools of labor, he influences nature and uses it in order to create objects necessary to satisfy his needs. Labor is a circle of human activity demanded and appreciated by the human community.
Human labor activity cannot be associated only with the sphere of material production (as it is traditionally presented in labor psychology and related branches of psychology). Based on the understanding of labor in a broad sense, i.e. as a socially valuable productive activity of a person engaged in biological, technical, social (people as objects of labor), symbolic, artistic systems, then the history of psychological knowledge about labor and the worker cannot be associated only with the development of material production, although it should be left as a priority . Human activity is an imperative of individual human consciousness. On the basis of the subject area of activity for the purpose of professional orientation, E. A. Klimov identifies five areas of a person’s professional labor activity.
Table No. 1. Subjects of labor in various areas of labor professional activity
| Professions of this type of activity are associated with the study of living and inanimate nature, caring for plants and animals: arborist, agronomist, ecologist, vegetable grower, livestock specialist, microbiologist, etc. |
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| "Man is man" |
People, groups, collectives, unorganized flow of people (class students, groups of sightseers, transport passengers, buyers). |
| Professions of this type are associated with service, training, education, legal protection of a person: artist, teacher, doctor, tour guide, salesman, manager, etc. |
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| "Man - technology" |
Machines, mechanisms, aggregates, technical systems, transport, equipment, external means and conditions of the pile, life. |
| Professions of this type of activity are associated with the creation, installation, assembly and adjustment of technical devices, the operation and repair of technical means: a driver, a bricklayer, a mechanic, a welder, a turner, an electrician, etc. |
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| "Man - sign system" |
Natural and artificial languages, numbers, letters, money, maps, schemes, formulas, codes, signs, signals, tables, drawings. |
| Examples of professions: programmer, economist, accountant, draftsman, telephone operator, topographer, bibliographer, typesetter, etc. |
|
| "Man - an artistic image" |
Artistic images and their elements, works of literature, art, aesthetics of living conditions, recreation, work, people's relationships. |
| Professions of this type are associated with modeling, the creation of works of art, musical, acting activities: artist, musician. actor, writer, jeweler, sculptor, fashion designer, etc. |
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The accumulated knowledge in the collective consciousness of the human community determines its needs, which, in turn, determine the range of demanded activities or labor.
List of used literature
1. Belous V.V. Temperament and activity. Tutorial. - Pyatigorsk, 1990.
2. Leontiev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality. - M., 1982.
3. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology: In 2 volumes - T. I. - M., 1989
Types of labor activity
Types and conditions of human labor activity.
Lecture #3
The most important in terms of factors affecting safety is the type of work activity, its severity and intensity, as well as the conditions in which work is carried out.
Labor activity can first of all be divided into physical and mental labor. The main types of labor activity are presented in Fig. 1.
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Physical work characterized primarily by increased muscle load on the musculoskeletal system and its functional systems - cardiovascular, neuromuscular, respiratory, etc. Physical labor develops the muscular system, stimulates metabolic processes in the body, but at the same time, it can have negative consequences, for example, diseases of the musculoskeletal system, especially if it is not properly organized or is excessively intense for the body.
Brainwork associated with the reception and processing of information and requires tension of attention, memory, activation of thinking processes, is associated with increased emotional stress. Mental labor is characterized by a decrease in motor activity - hypokenisia. Hypokenisia may be a condition for the formation of cardiovascular disorders in humans. Prolonged mental stress has a negative impact on mental activity - the functions of attention, memory, and perception of the environment deteriorate. The well-being of a person and, ultimately, his state of health largely depends on the correct organization of mental work and on the parameters of the environment in which human mental activity is carried out.
In modern types of labor activity, purely physical labor is rare. The modern classification of labor activity identifies forms of labor that require significant muscle activity; mechanized forms of labor; work in semi-automatic and automatic production; work on the conveyor; remote control work and intellectual (mental) work.
mechanized labor requires less energy and muscle loads. At the same time, mechanized labor is characterized by greater speed and monotony of human movements. Monotonous work leads to rapid fatigue and reduced attention.
Work on the assembly line characterized by even greater speed and uniformity of movement. A person working on a conveyor performs one or more operations; since he works in a chain of people performing other operations, the time for performing operations is strictly regulated. This requires a lot of nervous tension and, combined with the high speed of work and its monotony, leads to rapid nervous exhaustion and fatigue.
On the semi-automatic and automatic production energy costs and labor intensity are less than on a conveyor belt. The work consists in the periodic maintenance of mechanisms or the performance of simple operations - the supply of the processed material, turning the mechanisms on or off.
Forms intellectual (mental) labor diverse - operator, managerial, creative, work of teachers, doctors, students. The work of the operator is characterized by great responsibility and high neuro-emotional stress. The work of students is characterized by the tension of basic mental functions - memory, attention, the presence of stressful situations associated with tests, exams, tests.
The most complex form of mental activity - creative work(the work of scientists, designers, writers, composers, artists, etc.). Creative work requires significant neuro-emotional stress, which leads to an increase in blood pressure, a change in the electrocardiogram, an increase in oxygen consumption, an increase in body temperature and other changes in the body's work caused by an increased neuro-emotional load.
Types of labor activity - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Types of labor activity" 2017, 2018.
Types of labor activity of a person differ in the content of processes, the functions performed, the forms of organization, the costs of abilities, the results obtained, the methods of measurement, and many other features. labor processes or types of labor activity, according to the main features that determine their name, are simple and complex, basic and auxiliary, mental and physical, manual and automated, mechanical and instrumental, regulated and creative, scientific and practical, managerial and executive, productive and maintenance, continuous and discrete, free and forced, technical and economic, linear and functional, etc.
For the organization of labor activity, it is necessary to single out general managerial and executive functions: justifying the goal, planning work, coordinating the work of personnel, monitoring processes, evaluating results, etc.
Planning in a free market economy becomes the basis for the independent production and labor activity of all enterprises and workers, since without it it is impossible to calculate the need for economic resources, coordinate the work of personnel and individual services, control the current course of production, stimulate timely and high-quality work, etc.
Coordination in modern management is considered the most important function of management in every activity. In personnel management, it allows for a rational placement of employees, ensuring coordinated actions of personnel, as well as maneuvering economic resources at all levels of management and at the stages of production, consumption and distribution of goods and services.
Control serves in any production activity as an important means of achieving the goals planned by the personnel. Based on the Accounting and analysis of actual and planned results, control acts as a feedback element in improving the management of all labor and production processes.
The considered functions are common in all managerial and executive activities of the personnel, as well as in all mental and physical labor processes.
The joint labor activity of personnel at an industrial enterprise consists in the fact that some categories of workers ensure the uninterrupted supply of production resources, others - their biological processing, and others - the sale of finished products. Each employee of the enterprise contributes his individual labor to the single production process, which thus forms the overall final result of production. Therefore, the work of each member of the team of an enterprise or corporation, which is an important part of the overall labor activity, must be planned and organized in advance. At small enterprises, the planning, organization and management of their labor activity is carried out by the workers themselves - performers, at large enterprises - by specially allocated workers - managers or managers - organizers of various levels of management. Management as a type of labor activity of a special category of personnel, called managers or managers, is an integration process of their influence on the work of individual performers, entire groups or divisions of an enterprise in order to achieve the greatest production results with limited economic resources. Managers must create organizational and economic conditions for the fruitful work of all employees.
The principle of combining or separating managerial and executive activities can be the basis of the main provision of modern management about the high productivity of personnel. However, in any case, the better each performer manages himself and his work processes as part of a single production system, the less special or professional management is required. To do this, each employee - manager and performer must know well how to carry out executive and managerial functions in his production or workplace. The better the main goals of the organization are known to all employees and the more they have economic freedom in their work, the more likely the tasks can be achieved, the closer the final result is to the goal. In practice, such an organization of work can be considered a kind of self-management of personnel.
The personnel management system in every large and small enterprise can be divided into three categories of labor activity: managing oneself and one's work, managing a separate group of employees or a division of the enterprise, and managing the personnel of the entire organization. Any managerial activity can be represented in production as a system for managing people and their labor activity. Activity management consists of known general functions; setting production targets, planning labor processes, monitoring the implementation of tasks, measuring the results, etc. People management includes such specific functions as determining the optimal number of employees, selecting and arranging personnel for jobs and stages of production, ensuring cooperation between all members of the workforce, informing and motivating employees, etc.
in personnel management It is customary to divide all types of human labor activity into two components. The first of them characterizes regulated work performed according to a given technology or scheme, when the performer does not introduce any elements of novelty into the work, his own creativity. A typical example of such an activity is the performance by a worker of the labor operations of a machine operator or assembler according to pre-developed technological maps or processes. The second component characterizes creative work aimed at creating new material goods or spiritual values, as well as new technologies or production methods. Creative work includes the work of an entrepreneur, inventor-innovator, scientific worker-innovator, etc.
All types of labor can be divided into two groups: physical, where muscular activity predominates, and mental, where mental activity predominates.
There is the following classification of labor activity:
1. Forms of labor that require significant muscle activity. These forms are gradually disappearing because they are associated with heavy physical activity (diggers, lumberjacks, etc.). Representatives of these professions completely or partially lack the mechanization of the production process, which requires significant energy costs. Although such physical labor develops the human muscular system, it causes a number of negative consequences. The main one is the social inefficiency of physical labor. To achieve a certain performance, a significant strain of the physical strength of a person is necessary.
2. Mechanized forms of labor are numerous professions in all branches of production. The characteristic features of the forms of mechanized labor are associated with a decrease in the muscle component in the work and the complication of the action program, the role of large muscles decreases in favor of small ones. The task is to develop precise and fast movements. The complication of the action program for mechanized forms of labor is associated with the acquisition of special knowledge and motor skills.
3. Group forms of labor (conveyor line). The basis of high labor productivity on the assembly line is the automation of motor skills, the simplification of a number of additional operations, and the synchronization of the work of all its participants. The time interval between operations is a measure of monotonicity. In this regard, a high load on the nervous system, the emotional sphere is growing. Since people with individual characteristics of the nervous system work on the conveyor, additional loads are created on it.
4. Forms of labor associated with semi-automatic or automatic production. In these forms, the mechanization of production is expressed to a greater extent. A person does not supplement the mechanism, but manages it, ensuring its continuous operation. The main feature of activity is readiness for action and is associated with the speed of reaction (operational rest). Its level is different, depending on the responsibility of the work, attitude towards it, the speed of action, the individual characteristics of the worker. Maintaining a state of operational peace is a lot of nervous work.
5. Forms of work associated with remote control. They share two main working rhythms. In some cases, control panels require frequent human actions. The uninterrupted attention of the worker receives a discharge in numerical movements or conditional-motor acts. In others - rare, the worker is mainly in a state of readiness for action. The most complex forms are the activities of dispatchers in production or transport.
6. Forms of intellectual activity. From a physiological point of view, this form is based on the complex work of the central nervous system, in which an appropriate program of action is formed. Knowledge work is diverse, and programs vary in quality and complexity. On the one hand, this is a simple program of actions, which creates a monotonous stereotype (telegraph operators, accountants), and on the other hand, a changing, complex program of actions (creative work).
Features of mental labor. Mental is considered work, which is associated with the reception and processing of information. It requires the participation of sensory systems, attention, memory, activation of thinking, and the emotional sphere. Mental labor is characterized by great stress on the activity of the central nervous system, but does not exclude the possibility of physical stress, even significant.
The main types of mental labor:
1. Operator's work - a group of professions associated with the management of machines, equipment, technological processes (operators - observers, operators - performers, operators - technologists, etc.). To study these professions, which are found everywhere in production, a science has been created - engineering psychology, which studies human functions in automated systems.
2. Managerial work - heads of enterprises, institutions, teachers. This group is dominated by factors caused by the growth in the volume of information, the lack of time for its processing, the increase in social status and personal responsibility for decision-making. A modern leader needs various qualities (political, organizational, business, professional, personal), erudition in various fields of knowledge (economics, management, engineering, technology, psychology), the presence of certain skills (teacher, educator). This form of labor is characterized by non-standard solutions, irregular loads, and the possibility of conflict situations.
3. Creative work is one of the most complex forms of human activity, since it requires many years of preparation and high qualifications. These are scientists, writers, composers, actors, painters, designers, architects. Their work is characterized by the creation of new algorithms of activity (more often than among representatives of other professions), a significant amount of memory, close selective attention, which increases the level of neuro-emotional stress. In addition, an unregulated schedule of activities.
4. The work of medical workers. With all the variety of specialties of a doctor and a paramedical worker, they have common features - constant contact with sick people, increased responsibility, and often a lack of information to make the right decision.
5. The work of pupils and students. The educational process requires the tension of the main mental functions - memory, attention (especially concentration and stability), perception. Training is often accompanied by stressful situations (exams, tests).
Both specific (analyzer) and non-specific structures of the brain take part in the mental process. During mental activity, the processes cover various cortical-subcortical interactions in both hemispheres of the large brain. Any work is accompanied by a certain neuro-emotional stress. At the same time, perception, attention, memory are aggravated, vegetative changes appear. For each type of activity, a certain optimum of emotional stress is necessary, at which the reaction of the body becomes effective and perfect. Emotional stress largely depends on complex socio-psychological motivations.
During the performance of mental work, mental processes change significantly. At the beginning, attention, the ability to memorize, the speed of solving "test" problems gradually improve (working out). Excessive work can inhibit mental activity. To maintain mental performance, vegetative functions are of great importance, which provide energy costs.
An important mechanism for ensuring the effectiveness of mental work is an increase in blood flow in the nerve centers that are actively working. This is mainly due to the redistribution of blood flow in the vessels of the brain. With frequent (daily) repetition, these changes can lead to pathological changes not only in the vegetative, but also in the mental sphere. It happens especially often when there is no full recovery after work, and fatigue becomes chronic (overwork).
The problems of overwork and performance are closely related to age-related changes and human biorhythms. It is important that with mental fatigue, physical performance also decreases.
Signs of fatigue during mental activity: feeling of weakness, decreased attention, deterioration of memory and thinking, weakening of the will, impaired motor skills (impaired coordination of movements, decreased strength), drowsiness. The development of fatigue depends on the state of the body, external factors. With mental overwork, work continues due to an increase in emotional stress.
The main regularities of the processes of fatigue and recovery (according to G.V. Folbort):
1. The level of performance depends on the ratio of the processes of fatigue and recovery. These processes develop simultaneously, but one of them prevails: if fatigue dominates, performance decreases, if recovery, performance increases.
2. There is a close relationship between fatigue and recovery. Recovery is stimulated by the changes that occur in the process of fatigue. During work and after it, the relationship between the processes of fatigue and recovery changes: during the process, fatigue processes predominate, but recovery processes are also pronounced.
3. The rate of development of fatigue affects the intensity of recovery processes. If fatigue develops faster (with intensive work), then recovery after work is faster.
4. Recovery processes do not develop in a straight line, but in waves. The general upward trend continues. In the recovery process, two phases are divided - the achievement of initial performance and sustainable, permanent performance.
5. By changing the duration of work and rest after it, two states can be achieved - chronic fatigue (overwork) and a gradual increase in working capacity (training). If a person starts to work again to a state of stable performance, then the processes of drowning are aggravated and overwork develops.
6. The development of fatigue is affected by inhibition in the nerve centers: inhibition stops work, preventing the development of chronic overwork and stimulating the development of recovery processes.
By itself, mental work, not complicated by negative emotions, does not significantly affect the body, but among people engaged in this form of activity, there is a rather high percentage of people with diseases of the cardiovascular and nervous systems. An important method of maintaining high performance is the alternation of mental and physical labor.