The concept of compensation in various psychological schools. Psychological protection of the individual, its mechanisms with examples. Psychological defense mechanisms and individual personality traits:

Any living system must have a certain margin of "strength" in case of sudden adverse changes in the external and internal environment. This requires specific compensatory mechanisms. The complexity of a living system is directly proportional to its efficiency. But the complication of the system organization increases the likelihood of internal "failures" in the process of its work. Maintaining a certain level of "reliability" of the system as a whole and its individual components is the essence of complex and diverse compensation processes. The presence of paired organs in many animals and humans, which are able to "duplicate" each other when one of them is damaged, as well as the ability to regenerate, testifies to the phylogenetic antiquity of compensatory adaptability.

Compensation is understood as the process of compensating for underdeveloped or impaired functions by using preserved ones or restructuring partially impaired ones.

For the theory and practice of special psychology, this category is one of the key ones. How the restoration of impaired functions occurs, on what it depends, has been the subject of heated discussions for more than one century. There have been and still are many theories of compensation. Of particular importance in understanding the essence of compensatory mechanisms were the studies of P.K. Anokhin, L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria, V. Stern, A. Adler and others.

First of all, such concepts as "organ" and "function" were significantly transformed. In the natural science tradition of the 19th century, an organ was understood as a certain, material part of a living organism that performs its own function. Such a narrow morphological interpretation was sufficient to characterize somatic, bodily functions, but it clearly did not correspond to the complex organization of mental activity and human behavior. As a result, the concept of "organ" was expanded and transformed into the concept of "functional organ". A.A. Ukhtomsky wrote on this occasion: “Any temporary combination of forces capable of achieving a certain achievement can be an organ” (quoted from: Bratus B.S. Personality anomalies. M., 1990, p. 69).

The idea of ​​mental functions has also changed, which for a long time were considered as some kind of undifferentiated, further indecomposable "abilities". It was replaced by the idea of ​​"psychological systems", which have a complex structure, including many components: motive, intention, intention, activity programs, the image of the result and operations that implement this program, with a mandatory comparison of the result obtained with its original image. With this understanding, mental functions should be compared not with a morphological subject, but with neurophysiological processes carried out by certain brain structures. Consequently, mental activity is based on "functional organs" or "functional systems", characterized by a complex composition of their structure, including a set of afferent and efferent links. Mental functions of different content are provided by functional systems of different composition.

Functional systems have high plasticity and the ability to rebuild. It is this ability that underlies the mechanisms for compensating for rearrangements.

Traditionally allocate two types of rearrangements of disturbed functions - intrasystem and intersystem.

Compensatory processes proceed under constant control and with the participation of higher nervous activity; they go through several phases (stages).

First phase- detection of a violation in the body. A signal about a violation can be associated with the disorder itself, and with its consequences, with various deviations in behavior and activity.

Second phase- assessment of the violation parameters, its localization and depth (severity).

Third phase- formation of a program for the sequence and composition of compensatory processes and mobilization, neuropsychic resources of the individual.

The inclusion of this program necessarily requires monitoring the process of its implementation. This is the content fourth phase.

And finally fifth, final phase associated with stopping the compensatory mechanism and fixing its results.

The time duration of these stages may be different, depending on the nature of the violation, its severity and on the individual characteristics of the organism. Stopping the compensatory process is associated with the restoration of impaired function and the resumption of various forms of activity.

Compensatory processes, unfolding in time, are carried out at different levels of their organization. Usually there are four such levels.

First - biological, or bodily level: compensatory processes proceed mostly automatically and unconsciously.

Second - psychological level significantly expands the possibilities of compensatory mechanisms, overcoming the limitations of the first. It can be said that the psychological level is a truly human way of restoring disturbed functions with the involvement of the work of consciousness.

It is no coincidence that the same violation in animals and humans can lead to different consequences. So, deafness in an animal in the wild is not compatible with life. A person, with all the difficulties that arise in conditions of deafness, is able to continue a full-fledged life activity.

The psychological level of compensation is primarily associated with a person's ability to adequately assess their capabilities in the face of certain violations, set realistic goals and objectives, and maintain a positive attitude towards themselves. In such situations, the self-consciousness and personality of a person, in particular his volitional qualities, perform the most important compensatory function. Therefore, it seems natural that with the same violation in different people we can observe pronounced differences in their social adaptation, depending on personal characteristics.

The psychological level of compensation is also associated with the work of protective mechanisms and coping strategies of behavior. Psychological protection, as defined by R.M. Granovskaya, - “this is a special system for stabilizing the personality, aimed at protecting consciousness from unpleasant, traumatic experiences associated with internal and external conflicts, states of anxiety and discomfort” (Nikolskaya I.M., Granovskaya R.M. Psychological protection in children. SPb., 2000, p. 19). The mechanisms of psychological defense are mostly related to unconscious activity. These are repression, suppression, identification, projection, regression, sublimation, rationalization, catharsis and many others. Being poorly understood, they are very selective depending on the nature of the problem situation and on the personality characteristics of a person. In addition, defense mechanisms can contribute to both adaptation and maladjustment of the individual. In the latter case, we are talking about the fixation of the same defense mechanism, regardless of the emerging external situation.

Coping strategies are the conscious efforts of the individual to cope with stressful situations that generate anxiety. In the real everyday behavior of a person trying to solve a particular problem situation, as a rule, various defense mechanisms are combined with different variants of coping strategies. The latter are extremely diverse, but easily fit into three main types - problem solving, seeking social support, and avoidance - avoiding the need for an independent solution. The choice of a specific type of strategy is determined by the objective circumstances of the problem situation. But it also largely depends on the personal characteristics of the individual, on the orientation of the personality, the nature of value orientations, the system of social attitudes and attitudes towards oneself, others, and especially one's own violation.

The psychological level of the flow of compensatory processes, being central to a person, however, cannot by itself ensure the implementation of the entire compensatory program. This requires a more complex form of its organization, implemented at the socio-psychological level. Here, as it is easy to see, we go beyond the boundaries of the bodily existence of the individual, but remain within the framework of his personality as a social way of existence. At this level, in addition to intrapsychic, interpsychic, extracerebral mechanisms begin to operate distinctly.

As a matter of fact, the going beyond the limits of the physical existence of man has already taken place at the previous psychological level. For a person is, first of all, a product of the social environment. But here the nature of the compensatory process is presented, if you like, in its open form. The effectiveness of compensation is largely determined by the nature of the interpersonal relationship of the disabled person with the immediate environment.

Participation, mutual assistance, emotional support, understanding, tolerance, etc. are powerful psychological means of revealing the potential of a person, strengthening self-confidence, restoring a positive attitude towards oneself. The feeling of spiritual and social well-being is based on the realization of one's need for someone or something, as well as on a clear understanding of one's own independence and autonomy. This gives rise to a sense of meaningfulness of existence and security in a person. The latter is connected with the idea of ​​a minimum degree of guaranteed security and self-confidence. A sense of meaningfulness includes the presence of clear and achievable goals, a sense of control over ongoing events, and the worthlessness of the efforts spent.

A sense of well-being is associated by many researchers with the three main life “pillars”, which include the family, the profession and the immediate environment outside the family. In each of these institutions, the individual in different proportions realizes the awareness of his involvement and independence. Of course, a person's connections with the world are immeasurably richer, but these three are fundamentally important in the process of compensating for certain violations. A person's ability to cope with severe trials and difficulties largely depends on the strength of these "pillars". It is easy to see that serious illnesses and injuries leading to disability, in one way or another, test the strength of these very supporting structures of a person's living space. It is no coincidence that in modern correctional pedagogy and special psychology special attention is paid to family education and professional self-determination of persons with congenital or early acquired deviations from the normal course of development.

Of course, situations are possible in which the subject is able to experience a sense of well-being even in conditions of serious violations in the structure of interpersonal relations, including family ones, and also in the absence of the necessary professional activity. But this, most likely, can speak of the pathology of the personality when its semantic sphere and system of value orientations are deformed.

Rice. 12.1. The structure of factors of socio-psychological well-being of a person

The concept of socio-psychological well-being that we have identified and the factors determining it largely coincide in their content with the very popular term “ the quality of life”, which is understood as a characteristic of the degree of comfort in meeting human needs (G.S. Nikiforov). The quality of life is a general characteristic of different aspects of life. These include satisfaction with studies, work, family relationships, social environment, political and economic situation in the country. A special side of the quality of life is made up of such characteristics of the subject as the state of the individual, allowing her to relatively painlessly overcome the various oppositions of the external world, adequately solve the tasks set, the ability to be everything that she is able to become (self-realization), the ability to be in physical and mental balance with nature, social environment and with oneself (G.S. Nikiforov).

The compensation levels we have identified do not have clear boundaries. But among them it is still possible to designate the highest - social. The content of this level is associated with the macro-social scale of human existence. First of all, this is the policy of the state in relation to the disabled, including disabled children. This includes, among other things, the creation of special social institutions, the functioning of which is aimed at helping people with developmental disabilities - kindergartens, schools, rehabilitation and habilitation centers, educational and industrial enterprises, medical workshops, etc. In addition, the level involves the organization of a system for training specialists in the field of correctional education. Finally, this is special legislation that represents certain guarantees of society in relation to different groups of disabled people.

The nature of the attitude towards the disabled in the sphere of everyday mass consciousness should also be attributed to the social level. This area is not subject to direct legislative control. It is impossible to issue such a decree, according to which all members of society will be obliged to love the disabled. This area is closely connected with the religious, national and historical traditions of a particular society. In addition, the degree of society's tolerance for people with disabilities is largely determined by the education system and its content. Mass media (newspapers, radio, television) have a strong influence on everyday consciousness. At a time when in our country the topic of disability, including children's disability, could not be a subject of discussion (until 1991), socio-psychological studies conducted to study the attitude of the population towards various groups of disabled people invariably recorded frank wariness and alienation. The severity of these characteristics was almost directly dependent on the level of education.

The experience of integrated education of children with developmental disabilities in the conditions of ordinary general education schools just tries to maximize the use of the possibilities of the social level of compensation.

The foregoing should not create the impression that compensatory processes exist in isolation from all processes of the life of a disabled person. Separate consideration of compensation phenomena is a product of abstraction. In fact, they are only one of the aspects of its integral life and development. If damage to one or another organ or function is compatible with life, then this means that in this case compensatory mechanisms have worked. In such a situation, life activity continues in new unfavorable conditions simultaneously with the process of restoration (compensation), because they cannot exist separately. According to the figurative expression of A.R. Luria, “a person cannot “close” for repairs.”

Closely related to the concept of compensation is another term - decompensation, which means loss of previously achieved compensatory effect under the influence of pathogenic influences. In terms of ease of occurrence and stability, decompensatory states are very variable and largely depend on the strength and strength of the restorative effect.

In special psychology, another concept that is close in content is often used - pseudo-compensation. It captures the persistent tendencies of the individual to inadequately use defense mechanisms and coping strategies that do not allow a person to find a productive way out of the current crisis situation.

The fate of the concept of "hypercompensation" has developed in a special way in special psychology. It is very difficult to give an unambiguous definition of this term, because it is interpreted extremely contradictory. Sometimes it is used as a synonym for pseudo-compensation in the sense of the inadequacy of the choice of means of recovery.

The original meaning of this concept, introduced into the professional psychological dictionary by A. Adler, is somewhat different. A. Adler himself gives him different definitions, the general meaning of which boils down to those few cases when people with serious disabilities in physical and mental development were able to achieve high results in various areas of human activity that are not available to most normal people. In his works, A. Adler gives many examples of hypercompensation, pointing out that the mechanism of its implementation is associated with the natural for a person feeling of worthlessness, on the one hand, and expressed motive for excellence- with another. The desire for excellence is understood by A. Adler positively, as a tendency towards development, towards self-improvement. Thus, long before the advent of humanistic psychology, A. Adler anticipated its main postulates.

The feeling of low value is especially acute in childhood, which is the main engine of the child's mental development, since the discrepancy between what is and what one would like creates a complex dynamic tension. Even more dramatic are the experiences of failure by children with severe physical or mental disabilities. In this case, there is inferiority complex”, the presence of which, depending on a number of circumstances, can both block development, creating the basis for neurosis, and turn on the mechanisms of hypercompensation. Adler himself repeatedly emphasized that cases of overcompensation are not so numerous. But, even being isolated, they are valuable for science, because they demonstrate with extraordinary brightness the hidden possibilities of human nature, the ability of the individual to resist the most unfavorable conditions of his existence, to develop in spite of them.

It should be emphasized that in Russian psychology the fate of A. Adler's ideas was not easy. Individual psychology was received with enthusiasm. The peak of A. Adler's unprecedented popularity came in the second half of the twenties. A particularly strong influence of his ideas was observed in special psychology (as it was then called, pathopedology) and correctional pedagogy. But the drama of the situation was that the position of overcompensation was completely misunderstood. Adlerian psychology was considered proof of the optimistic fact that almost any physical or mental disturbance automatically leads to the effect of overdevelopment. From these positions, the programs of some types of special schools, for example, for the blind, were revised, because it was believed that blind children should overtake sighted peers in the development of speech and thinking.

In connection with the spread of a distorted interpretation of the ideas of individual psychology, L.S. Vygotsky in 1927 published the article Defect and Overcompensation. This work is not critical, but exclusively analytical in nature, L.S. Vygotsky consistently and very patiently, judging by numerous repetitions, reproduces and interprets the main provisions of hypercompensation, warning the reader against a simplified understanding.

But the era of psychoanalysis craze ended as quickly as it began. Already in the early 1930s, a campaign was launched to discredit psychoanalysis; psychoanalytic exercises are being abolished, publications of relevant literature are being discontinued, and so on.

From that moment on, the attitude towards A. Adler changed to the opposite. The criticism of his ideas was based on the same false understanding of them. A. Adler was credited with something that was completely absent in his writings. It is hardly possible to seriously assert that pathology is capable of stimulating development. If a person in cramped conditions achieves something, it is not due to illness, but only in spite of it, due to colossal volitional efforts and abilities. This is the main pathos of the idea of ​​hypercompensation. But in the era of dehumanization of social relations, a simplified understanding of human nature, these ideas could not be adequately assessed.

It is no coincidence that, until very recently, scientists writing on the history of special pedagogy stubbornly asserted that A. Adler's concept never had any influence on domestic defectology. But at the same time, even L.S. Vygotsky for his inconsistent and sympathetic attitude towards the idea of ​​overcompensation. In this regard, it is not surprising that in his Collected Works, published in 1983, the title of the above-mentioned work was changed by the editorial board to “Defect and Compensation” in order to distance L.S. Vygotsky from the "harmful" influence of A. Adler. True, in 1982, for the first time in many decades, an essay by B.V. Zeigarnik, who very accurately and psychologically correctly reproduced the main provisions of A. Adler.

Such a long commentary on the term "overcompensation" was, from our point of view, necessary, firstly, because until now the use of this concept in special psychology has a distinctly negative connotation. Secondly, it is part of one of the very original concepts of man, an example of a humanistic understanding of his nature. The individual psychology of A. Adler significantly enriched the practice of teaching and educating children with physical and mental disabilities. In particular, on its basis, methods of emotional education and a system of psychological assistance to parents were developed.

The level structure of compensatory processes corresponds to ideas about the level organization of a person as a whole. At the same time, it should be taken into account that a person is a biosocial being, for his development biological and social determinants are equally important, with the latter playing a leading role. That is why these two groups of factors are involved in compensatory processes. In the above diagram (Fig. 12.2), we tried to conditionally present the relationship between the biological and social components of the compensation process; the diagonal line reproduces this ratio. The diagram shows what is different at each level. The higher the level, the greater the share belongs to the social factor, and vice versa. But even at the highest social level, there is a certain representation of the biological factor associated with a person's age, general state of health, deep underlying impairment, natural features of his temperament, etc.

Rice. 12.2. Levels of organization of compensatory processes

Speaking of compensatory processes, it should be noted that they are often confused with adaptation phenomena. Indeed, in both phenomena there is an adaptation effect, which makes them related to each other. That is why some authors believe that compensation is a kind of adaptation processes. The opposite point of view is rarely expressed. The clearest consistent position on this issue is taken by A.I. Volozhin and Yu.K. Subbotin. They consider adaptation and compensation as a complex bipolar function, where unity is combined with multidirectionality and where the meaning of one function is revealed through the existence of another. Adaptation and compensation are not isolated, they balance each other. Examples of other bipolar functions are: tension - relaxation, flexion - extension, inhalation - exhalation, excitation - inhibition, nutrition - excretion, etc.

Adaptation works when the balance between the individual and the environment is disturbed as a result of changes in the latter. The restoration of balance in such a situation is possible only on the condition that certain changes occur in the individual himself: he should abandon his former initial state. Consequently, adaptation is an integral part of the adaptive reactions of the system to a change in the environment of existence, expressed in the fact that the system, responding to changes in the parameters and defects of the environment that are essential for it, rebuilds, changes its structural connections to preserve the functions that ensure its existence as a whole in a changed environment. . The mechanism of adaptation may include both morphological and behavioral reactions depending on the level of organization of the system (Volozhin A.I., Subbotin Yu.K. Adaptation and compensation - a universal biological mechanism of adaptation. M., 1987, p. 33-34).

Compensatory processes also work in a situation of disturbed balance, but due to changes that have occurred not in the environment, but in the individual himself. In this case, the restoration of balance is possible on condition of a partial or complete return of the individual to the original state.

Thus, adaptive and compensatory processes act in different directions in a situation of disturbed balance, depending on the cause of these disturbances - environmental or intrafamily. The stated provisions can be generalized, although very schematically presented in graphical form. Figure 12.3. directions of action of adaptive and compensatory processes are reproduced.

The top row shows the direction of action of the adaptation process with three phases. The first phase is the state of dynamic equilibrium of the individual with the environment, indicated on the diagram by identical geometric shapes (large square - environment; small square - individual). The second phase is a disturbed balance, due to changes in the environmental order. In the diagram, this position is reflected by converting a large square into a circle. The third phase is the restoration of the lost balance - the transformation of a small square into a circle. Thus, it is clear that the main direction of the adaptation process on the way to achieving balance lies in moving away from its original state. The same diagram shows the reverse direction of action of compensatory mechanisms.

Rice. 12.3. Direction of action of adaptive and compensatory processes

Being united and multidirectional, adaptation and compensation develop unevenly in ontogeny. The formation of adaptive processes clearly overtakes the formation of compensatory ones, because the process of development in its inner essence is very close to adaptation. Age development is the formation of neoplasms, that is, a constant departure from one's previous state. Further, as one grows older, the development of compensatory abilities intensifies and catches up with adaptive ones, approximately equaling them. With aging, adaptive mechanisms begin to weaken first, and later compensatory ones. The dynamics of the age ratio of adaptive and compensatory processes is shown in Figure 12.4.

Rice. 12.4. Age dynamics of development of adaptive and compensatory processes

In modern special psychology, the term "compensation" is not widely used. The term " rehabilitation". Compensation is an internal process; rehabilitation - external. Rehabilitation issues began to actively attract the attention of domestic specialists in the late 60s.

Rehabilitation is defined as “a system of state, socio-economic, medical, professional, pedagogical, psychological and other measures aimed at preventing the development of pathological processes leading to temporary or permanent disability, at the effective and early return of sick and disabled people (children and adults) to society and to socially useful work. Rehabilitation is a complex process, as a result of which the victim creates an active attitude to the violation of his health and restores a positive attitude towards life, family and society ”(Kabanov M.M. Rehabilitation of the mentally ill. L., 1985, p. 10).

The key to this definition is that rehabilitation is a system of activities. This should be emphasized in order to separate this concept from the term "compensation".

A single impact cannot be considered as a rehabilitation one.

This process is aimed not at the violation itself, but at the personality of a person with a particular disability, at restoring the full existence of this personality in society, at overcoming the social consequences of a disease or injury. To put it quite simply, the purpose of rehabilitation is to prevent the transformation of a person with a disability into a disabled person. From a psychological point of view, the drama of disability consists in a conflict of full-fledged human needs with limited opportunities for their implementation. Rehabilitation is aimed at the maximum overcoming and resolution of this conflict state, because otherwise a gradual deformation of the victim's personality is possible.

It should also be noted that rehabilitation measures are aimed at restoring what we called above the main pillars of life - family, profession and social environment. This is expressly stated in the above definition. There are special types of rehabilitation: family, socio-psychological and professional. These areas of assistance are indicated if, as a result of disability, a person has problems in the field of family relations (including through the fault of the disabled person himself), employment and interpersonal contacts with people around him.

Being external to the individual, rehabilitation measures are based on compensatory internal processes. We can say that rehabilitation is nothing more than an attempt to influence the compensatory abilities of a person. At the same time, different types of rehabilitation are based and directed at different levels of compensatory processes. Thus, medical rehabilitation is addressed to the biological level of the organization of compensatory mechanisms. The leading role here belongs to biological therapy, including the use of drugs, exercise therapy, etc.

Psychological rehabilitation, in turn, is aimed at optimizing the flow of compensatory processes at the level of consciousness. It involves the use of a variety of psychotherapeutic and psycho-corrective measures. Their goal is the maximum possible mitigation of the crisis experiences of the individual, the formation of adequate self-esteem and positive self-perception, the expansion of ideas about life prospects, the formation of labor attitudes of the disabled person.

When we talk about the socio-psychological and social level of compensatory mechanisms, we must indicate that such forms of rehabilitation are addressed to them, such as family, pedagogical (retraining), labor (initiation into available types of work), leisure, creative and social in a wide range of ways. sense of the word. The latter implies a very wide range of social, socio-economic and government measures, presented not in the form of separate actions, but as a long-term, targeted policy in relation to various groups of disabled people with the provision of certain benefits and obligations from the state.

And finally, the formation of communities of various groups of disabled people, whose task is mutual assistance, creating conditions for social adaptation and defending the interests of the disabled themselves at the regional and state level, should be added to the sphere of social rehabilitation.

The following should be added to the above: just as there are no clear boundaries between the levels of compensatory processes, there is no strict separation of different forms of rehabilitation measures, which emphasizes their unity and complexity.

The literature indicates that the success of the implementation of rehabilitation measures is possible subject to certain principles. These include the following:

1) the unity of biological and psychosocial influences;

2) the diversity of efforts to organize rehabilitation activities (psychological, family, professional rehabilitation);

3) an appeal to the personality of a disabled person using partnerships of cooperation in the rehabilitation process;

4) stepping or sequence of activities, where the previous ones prepare the ground for subsequent impacts.

The listed principles were formulated by one of the authoritative rehabilitation specialists M.M. Kabanov. He also developed the stages of the rehabilitation process. The first stage is rehabilitation treatment. The second stage - readaptation - consists in the development of the capabilities of the disabled person to the conditions of the external environment. The leading role here belongs to psychosocial influences aimed at stimulating the social activity of the victim's personality. The third stage is actually rehabilitation, the task of which is to restore the old relationship of the disabled person with the surrounding reality.

Assessing the rehabilitation potential of a person, we must take into account not only the nature and depth of the violation, but also the socio-psychological consequences of this violation. So with the same pathology, they can be different, depending on how the impaired function was associated with the previous profession and what place the profession occupied in the hierarchy of personality values.

A slightly different situation is reproduced by another term, no less used in modern special psychology - habilitation, meaning in literal translation - the granting of rights. In rehabilitation, we are talking about the restoration, compensation for lost properties, conditions, the quality of life that was lost by the individual.

The habilitation situation is characterized differently. These are the cases when an individual is already born with one or another defect, a deviation in physical or mental development. Working with a person with congenital disorders is built on a different basis. In such cases, initial non-adaptation, the absence of a period of normal development and any loss are possible. Therefore, habilitation measures should be understood as a system of early intervention in the development of the child in order to achieve its maximum adaptability to external conditions of existence, taking into account the individual characteristics of existing disorders.

The last category we will look at is - correction, which means the process of correcting certain impaired functions. In special psychology, the question of the relationship between correction and compensation has been discussed for a long time. Summarizing all points of view, it is possible to formulate several provisions.

First of all, correction is always a certain impact on a person in order to correct something, it is an external process in relation to the individual, in contrast to compensation. Of course, the external corrective influence must be based on something, as, for example, rehabilitation is based on compensatory processes. For corrective measures, the mechanisms of sensitization act as a basis - the natural ability of functions to increase their effectiveness under the influence of training.

Correction, unlike compensation, is indicated in case of dysfunction, but not its loss. It is pointless to correct, for example, vision when it is absent. In this case, it is just about replenishing the lost function.

Please note that the phrase "impaired function" appears in the definition of both compensation and correction. This means that the question of whether the impaired function should be corrected or compensated depends on how pronounced the disorders themselves are. Disorders of the function, in which it still exists, but is no longer able to reach the level of expedient performance, indicate the need to include compensatory mechanisms. So, for example, a decrease in visual acuity to such indicators at which no approach of an object to the eyes, as well as its increase does not lead to the formation of an image of perception, but only elementary sensations remain intact, can be called a pronounced inability to expedient effectiveness of the visual function. In such a situation, it makes no sense to talk about effective correction.

Thus, we have tried to distinguish between the concepts under discussion. However, these differences are not absolute, but relative. For correction and compensation can complement each other. Even with a slight decrease in visual acuity in one eye, the function of the leader is automatically taken over by the safe one, making up for the patient's shortcomings. In essence, this is a compensatory act. On the other hand, in a situation of pronounced dysfunction, it is possible and even necessary to carry out certain corrective measures. The significance of the development of residual vision and hearing in blind and deaf children is well known for increasing their adaptability.

We have considered in comparative terms such categories as compensation, adaptation, rehabilitation, habilitation and correction. The disclosure of their meanings allows a better understanding of the phenomenon of deviant development. Of course, the main criterion for the effectiveness of correction, rehabilitation and habilitation is the result. But no less important is the stability of the achieved effect, as well as time costs, as an expression of labor intensity, and therefore, the cost of a corrective or rehabilitation service.

test questions

1. What are compensatory processes?

2. What is the level organization of compensatory processes?

3. Describe the main phases of the compensatory process.

4. What are the similarities and differences between compensation and adaptation?

5. What is the essence of such phenomena as decompensation, pseudo-compensation and hypercompensation?

6. What is the rehabilitation process?

7. How do such concepts as compensation and rehabilitation relate to each other?

8. What is the habilitation process?

Literature

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4. Wiseman N. Rehabilitation pedagogy. M., 1996.

5. Bolozhin A.I., Subbotin Yu.K. Adaptation and compensation is a universal biological mechanism of adaptation. M., 1987.

6. Vygotsky L.S. Defect and overcompensation // Problem of defectology. M., 1996.

7. Granovskaya R.M., Nikolskaya I.M. Psychological protection in children. SPb., 2000.

8. Zeigarnik B.V. Personality theory in foreign psychology. M., 1982.

9. Zemtsova M.I. Ways to compensate for blindness. M., 1956.

10. Kabanov M.M. Rehabilitation of the mentally ill. L., 1985.

11. Kabanov M.M. Psychosocial rehabilitation and social psychiatry. SPb., 1998.

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Hypercompensation, one of the protective mechanisms of the human psyche, helps to get rid of the feeling of inferiority. Like all unconscious people, this reaction is not perfect. It does not solve the problem, but masks it, and at any moment it can fail or aggravate the state of the individual.

The term "hypercompensation" was introduced by the Austrian psychologist Alfred Adler. Literally, this word is translated as "overcompensation."

Hypercompensation is an exaggerated manifestation of a quality that causes a feeling of inferiority and allows you to exalt yourself over others. This is often an unconscious, not controlled by a person mechanism. And sometimes she herself admits that she wants to prove, take revenge, surpass. Examples of overcompensation:

• obsession and talkativeness of a shy person;
• sexual promiscuity of a girl who is afraid of close relationships;
• demonstrative and inadequate behavior of an insecure person;
• passive and weak person;
• risky behavior of an indecisive person;
• the desire of a frail guy to gain muscle mass in order to “heap” offenders.

With hypercompensation, a person exerts too much effort to overcome his real or imaginary defect (complex), which results in its opposite. Moreover, the last, extreme degree of opposition. For example, a person who feels his dependence and lack of independence turns into a tyrant.

Overcompensation that is out of control harms the personality. She sends girls to the plastic surgeon's operating table, makes men constantly risk their lives to prove their masculinity, etc.

There are also positive manifestations of hypercompensation. Those who were afraid of heights become climbers, and those who were afraid of dogs become tiger trainers. Or a child harassed by classmates becomes an outstanding scientist.

Hypercompensation and compensation

Compensation is a defense mechanism similar to overcompensation, but in this case there is a desire for success in another area.

For example, men compensate for their low stature with large cars or long-legged models. And little Napoleon became a conqueror for the same reason. Or a woman who has not realized herself as a person goes into raising children and housekeeping.

Of course, this is not a strict criterion and not an indicator. It cannot be said that any housewife or man with a big car compensates for his "ugliness". Still, psychology is not an exact science. But the fact remains: just as hearing becomes more acute in a person with poor eyesight, so in a physically weak person, the desire for intellectual development intensifies.

This type of protection carries fewer dangers. Especially with the correct compensation. For example, when an outwardly unattractive girl knows how to win over due to her intellectual abilities.

Causes of overcompensation

The source of overcompensation is. It, in turn, is formed in childhood. The reason for the conviction of the individual in his own defectiveness becomes anything, but in total two groups can be distinguished:

• real physical handicap;
• fictional defect.

Feelings about a real lack are formed on the basis of criticism of the environment, reproaches, remarks, insults. Overweight, birthmarks, crooked teeth, disability are common causes of child bullying.

Fictional shortcomings and a feeling of general inferiority are formed during destructive, more often hyper-custody or rejection. Violence at school, rejection of the child by the class makes its contribution. In general, the feeling of helplessness and insecurity, dislike are the sources of an inferiority complex.

It is worth noting that they have a separate effect. A girl may not react in any way to remarks about being overweight, until her lover reproaches her for this. The result is, hypercompensation in the form of anorexia.

The influence of social, attempts to “comb everyone with one comb”, ignoring individual personality traits also contributes to the formation of a sense of inferiority and the impossibility of achieving success in life without those qualities that an individual lacks. As a result, he tries to develop those for which, perhaps, there are no inclinations. Instead of productively realizing oneself in the area to which there are inclinations.

Signs of overcompensation

The essential elements of hypercompensation are:

• boasting.

Depending on the compensated trait, loud speech, defiant behavior, promiscuity, or frilly appearance are added. Anyone who doubts his own erudition is always being clever, inserting his "five cents". And if you ask him for something in more detail, he hesitates, because apart from the tops and the illusion of knowledge, he has not yet learned anything. And it happens the other way around, a person is really so smart that he turns into a bore.

Overcompensation forces a person to humiliate others, to make them feel worthless. The spheres and ways of realizing such aspirations are different, but the goal is the same everywhere. A person with overcompensation feels significant only in conditions of superiority over others, their humiliation.

Results

Thus, hypercompensation involves getting rid of the disadvantage and developing in this area a few more steps. For some it helps to achieve success in life, but for someone it ruins life. Hypercompensation is the transformation of an inferiority complex into a superiority complex over other people.

Hypercompensation does not allow a person to grow and develop, to build full-fledged relationships. Instead of productive interaction, a person is busy asserting himself at the expense of others. Gradually, he finds himself alone, isolated from society. This flows into and, mental disorders. Hypercompensation requires large personal costs, which eventually leads to moral and physical exhaustion.

The defensive unconscious mechanism of overcompensation must be replaced by rational problem solving. That is, overcoming the inferiority complex and adequate personal self-realization (art, science, sports, cooking, fashion, etc.).

Note: Nancy McWilliams has no such psychological defense as "compensation".

One of the fairly recognizable psychological defense mechanisms - which of us has not heard of the "Napoleon complex"? Allegedly, Bonaparte did all his accomplishments because he felt an inferiority complex due to his small stature. What can I say ... Compensatory behavior is universal, because achieving recognition and status is an important need for every person. But compensation can be both with a plus sign and with a minus sign: the example of Napoleon has already been mentioned - this is negative compensation, but what if a person strives for self-development, conscious of his external unattractiveness?

It is an unconscious attempt to overcome real and imagined shortcomings. Compensatory behavior is universal, since the achievement of status is an important need for almost all people. Compensation can be socially acceptable (a blind person becomes a famous musician) and unacceptable (compensation for short stature - by the desire for power and aggressiveness; compensation for disability - by rudeness and conflict). They also distinguish direct compensation (the desire to succeed in a deliberately losing area) and indirect compensation (the desire to establish oneself in another area).

Psychological protection is a kind of immunity of the psyche, protecting it and the personality itself from external and internal negative influences.

Psychological defense works at an unconscious or subconscious level, and often a person cannot control his psychological defense mechanisms if he does not know anything about them.

When there is too much protection and not in the case, or several mechanisms work simultaneously, then the opposite result occurs - the psyche and personality can be destroyed.

Psychological defense and the destructive effect of its mechanisms

• The human psyche has the ability to protect itself from adverse influences, whether external or internal factors.

  Psychological defense mechanisms work in one way or another for each person. They perform the function of a guardian of our mental health, our "I" from the effects of stress, failure, increased anxiety; from unpleasant, destructive thoughts, from external and internal conflicts that cause negative well-being.

  In addition to the guarding function, psychological protection human can also have a destructive effect on the personality, it can prevent the personality from growing and developing, achieving success in life.

  This occurs with the frequent repetition of any psychological defense mechanism in similar life situations. But some situations, although similar to the one that initially caused psychological protection, still do not need it, because. a person is able to consciously solve this problem.

  Also, psychological defense becomes destructive for the individual in cases where a person uses several defenses at once.

  A person who often uses psychological defense mechanisms (this happens unconsciously) is doomed to the status of a "loser" in his life.

  Personal psychological defense mechanisms

  Sigmund Freud was the first to introduce the concept of "psychological defense" - these are such psychological defense mechanisms as "crowding out" And "sublimation".

  For example, with the help of “repression”, a person unconsciously drives his problems deep into the subconscious (into the unconscious). And through “sublimation”, the individual turns his internal aggression into creativity (fine arts, literature, etc.)

  The psychological defenses of the individual are not innate, they are acquired during the socialization of the child, and the main source of development of certain defenses, as well as their use in life (for their intended purpose or destructive ones) are parents or persons replacing them.

  In short, the use of psychological defense mechanisms by children depends on how and what kind of protection parents use.

  Subsequently (if they were brought up that way), it will be impossible to cope with excess psychological defenses on their own (which means moving from “losers” to “winners”) without the help of a psychotherapist or psychoanalyst.

  Psychological defenses have the closest connection with character accentuations, and the more pronounced the accentuation is, the more pronounced the mechanisms of a person's psychological defense are.

  Knowing the accentuation of character, his individual-personal psycho-physiological characteristics, a person will be able to learn how to manage his psychological defenses, correcting them.

  MECHANISMS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROTECTION AND INDIVIDUAL-PERSONAL FEATURES: ^

  Consider the 8 main psychological defenses of a person: their connection with character accentuation, temperament, possible deviant behavior, psychosomatic diseases and the role of the individual in society:

  At the end, links will be given to articles on overcoming the psychological defense mechanism for people with a sanguine, melancholic, choleric and phlegmatic temperament.

  1) Negation ^

  PSYCHOLOGICAL DEFENSE NEGATION is the earliest ontogenetically and the most primitive mechanism of psychological defense.

  Denial develops in order to contain the emotion of acceptance of others if they demonstrate emotional indifference or rejection.

  This, in turn, can lead to self-loathing. Denial implies an infantile substitution of acceptance by others for attention on their part, and any negative aspects of this attention are blocked at the stage of perception, and positive ones are allowed into the system.

  As a result, the individual gets the opportunity to painlessly express feelings of acceptance of the world and himself, but for this he must constantly attract the attention of others in ways available to him.

  Egocentricity, suggestibility and self-hypnosis, sociability, desire to be in the center of attention, optimism, ease, friendliness, ability to inspire confidence, confident demeanor, thirst for recognition, arrogance, boasting, self-pity, courtesy, willingness to serve, affective demeanor, pathos, easy tolerance of criticism and lack of self-criticism.

  Other features include pronounced artistic and artistic abilities, a rich imagination, a penchant for practical jokes.

  Preferred jobs in the arts and service industries.

  Possible deviations (deviations) of behavior: deceit, a tendency to simulate, thoughtlessness of actions, underdevelopment of the ethical complex, a tendency to fraud, exhibitionism, demonstrative attempts at suicide and self-harm.

  Diagnostic concept: hysteria.

  Possible psychosomatic illnesses(according to F. Alexander): conversion-hysterical reactions, paralysis, hyperkinesis, dysfunction of analyzers, endocrine disorders.

  Group role type(according to G. Kellerman): "the role of the romantic."

  2) Suppression ^

  Suppression, as a psychological defense mechanism, develops to contain the emotion of fear, the manifestations of which are unacceptable for positive self-perception and threaten to fall into direct dependence on the aggressor.

  Fear is blocked by forgetting the real stimulus, as well as all objects, facts and circumstances associated with it.

  The cluster of psychological defense suppression includes mechanisms close to it: ISOLATION AND INTROJECTION.

  In other sources, the same terms are used to refer to pathological disorders of perception.

  Features of protective behavior in the norm: careful avoidance of situations that can become problematic and cause fear (for example, flying in an airplane, public speaking, etc.), inability to defend one's position in an argument, conciliation, submissiveness, timidity, forgetfulness, fear of new acquaintances, pronounced tendencies to avoid and subordination are rationalized, and anxiety is overcompensated in the form of unnaturally calm, slow behavior, deliberate equanimity, etc.

  No data available.

  Group role type:"the role of the child".

  4) Compensation^

  Psychological defense mechanism COMPENSATION , ontogenetically the latest and cognitively complex psychological defense, which is developed and used, as a rule, consciously.

  Compensation is designed to contain feelings of sadness, grief over a real or imaginary loss, loss, lack, lack, inferiority.

  Compensation involves an attempt to correct or find a substitute for this inferiority.

  The compensation cluster includes the following psychological defense mechanisms: OVERCOMPENSATION, IDENTIFICATION, and FANTASY, which can be understood as compensation at the ideal level.

  Features of protective behavior in the norm: behavior due to the installation of serious and methodical work on oneself, finding and correcting one's shortcomings, overcoming difficulties, achieving high results in activities, serious sports, collecting, striving for originality, a penchant for memories, literary creativity.

  Character accent: distimosity.

  Possible deviations: aggressiveness, drug addiction, alcoholism, sexual deviations, promiscuity, kleptomania, vagrancy, insolence, arrogance, ambition.

  Diagnostic concept: depression.

  Possible psychosomatic diseases: anorexia nervosa, sleep disturbance, headaches, atherosclerosis.

  Group role type:"the role of the uniter".

  5) Projection ^

  Psychological defense PROJECTION develops relatively early in ontogeny to contain feelings of rejection of oneself and others as a result of emotional rejection on their part.

  Projection, as a psychological defense mechanism, involves attributing various negative qualities to others as a rational basis for their rejection and self-acceptance against this background.

  Features of protective behavior in the norm: pride, pride, selfishness, vindictiveness, vindictiveness, resentment, vulnerability, a heightened sense of injustice, arrogance, ambition, suspicion, jealousy, hostility, stubbornness, intractability, intolerance to objections, a tendency to incriminate others, the search for shortcomings, isolation, pessimism, hypersensitivity to criticism and comments, demanding of oneself and others, striving to achieve high performance in any kind of activity.

  Behavior determined by overvalued or delusional ideas of jealousy, injustice, persecution, invention, own inferiority or grandiosity.

  On this basis, manifestations of hostility are possible, reaching the point of violent acts and murders. Less common are the sadistic-masochistic complex and the hypochondriacal symptom complex, the latter based on distrust of medicine and doctors.

  Diagnostic concept: paranoia. (test for paranoid disorder)

  Possible psychosomatic diseases: hypertension, arthritis, migraine, diabetes, hyperthyroidism.

  Group role type:"Role of the Inspector".

  6) Substitution (Offset) ^

  Psychological defense SUBSTITUTION - develops to contain the emotion of anger towards a stronger, older or significant subject acting as a frustrator, in order to avoid retaliatory aggression or rejection.

  The individual relieves tension by turning anger and aggression on a weaker animate or inanimate object or on himself.

  Therefore, substitution has both active and passive forms and can be used by individuals regardless of their type of conflict response and social adaptation.

  Features of protective behavior in the norm: impulsiveness, irritability, exactingness towards others, rudeness, irascibility, protest reactions in response to criticism, uncharacteristic feelings of guilt, passion for “combat” sports (boxing, wrestling, hockey, etc.), preference for films with scenes of violence (action films, horror films, etc.), commitment to any activity associated with risk, a pronounced tendency to dominance is sometimes combined with sentimentality, a tendency to engage in physical labor.

  Possible deviations of behavior: aggressiveness, uncontrollability, a tendency to destructive and violent actions, cruelty, immorality, vagrancy, promiscuity, prostitution, often chronic alcoholism, self-harm and suicide.

  Diagnostic concept: epileptoidness (according to P.B. Gannushkin), excitable psychopathy (according to N.M. Zharikov), aggressive diagnosis (according to R. Plutchik).

  Possible behavioral deviations: pronounced inflated self-esteem, hypocrisy, hypocrisy, extreme puritanism.

  Diagnostic concept: mania.

  Possible psychosomatic diseases (according to F. Alexander): bronchial asthma, peptic ulcer, ulcerative colitis.

  This completes the description of the mechanisms of psychological defenses of a person.

  Psychological Defense Test (Life Style Index)

  How to overcome psychological defenses:

  sanguine ("Denial", "Compensation")

  Improving the pedantic nature ("Intellectualization")

  Psychocorrection of demonstrative accentuation of character (defense "Negation")

  Correction of exalted and cyclothymic nature ("Reactive formation", "Regression")