The French constitution of 1848 in brief. Information educational and educational materials. What are kutums
Second Republic. Revolution of 1848 In the winter of 1848 the population of Paris, especially the workers, rose up in an armed uprising. The immediate impetus for the uprising was the shooting in February of this year of a peaceful unarmed demonstration of Parisians who demanded the democratization of the political system and the adoption of concrete measures to improve the difficult economic situation of the people.
The atrocity of the government caused a storm of indignation. The very next day, the rebels captured the main strategic points of the capital. Louis Philippe abdicated. The Provisional Government was formed from representatives of the liberal democratic opposition. A republic was proclaimed. The government pledged to introduce universal direct suffrage. The Labor Decree proclaimed the right to work and the obligation of the state to provide everyone with work, to reduce the working day in Paris to 10 hours and in the provinces to 11. Other democratic measures were promised. At the same time, the government strengthened the armed forces. A mercenary so-called mobile guard was created. Formed mainly from the declassed elements of society, it became the mainstay of the government in the fight against the radical movement. Soon the Provisional Government raised taxes, which hit the peasantry especially hard. The government tried to use their dissatisfaction for its own purposes, arguing that the increase in taxes was due to the need to support Parisian workers, who allegedly wanted to live at the expense of the state. In the spring of 1848, elections were held for the Constituent Assembly, which was supposed to adopt the constitution of the republic. The overwhelming majority of the Assembly consisted of big bourgeois and landowners, generals, and representatives of the higher clergy. After the elections, the new ruling circles canceled all normative acts that provided for some improvement in the situation of workers. It is possible that the bourgeois government, encouraged by the results of the elections, deliberately provoked the workers to take action. The uprising began on June 22, 1848. For four days the workers fought heroically on the barricades, but, having no allies, they were defeated by the regular army of mobiles (mobile guards). Constitution of 1848 The main principles of the state system established by the constitution were: republican form of government, separation of powers, representative government. The National Assembly was declared the supreme body of legislative power. He was given the exclusive right to adopt laws, including the budget, the resolution of issues of war and peace, the approval of trade agreements and some other issues. The deputies of the Assembly were elected for a term of three years. The head of the executive branch was the president. Under his command were the army, the police, the administrative apparatus. The president appointed and dismissed ministers, commanders of the army and navy, prefects, governors of the colonies, and other senior officials. The Constituent Assembly placed the president in a largely independent position from parliament: the president was elected by electors from the departments, and not by the Assembly. The State Council was established as an advisory body considering government bills. It was also responsible for overseeing the application of laws. The members of the Council of State were appointed by the National Assembly for a term of six years. The bodies of central and local government did not undergo any significant changes. The former administrative-territorial division into departments, districts and communes was preserved. The power of the prefect in the department remained unchanged. Universal and direct suffrage by secret ballot was introduced. All French people over the age of 21 enjoying civil and political rights could vote. The same persons who had reached the age of 25 could be elected. A special chapter of the constitution was devoted to the democratic rights and freedoms of citizens. The democratic institutions fixed in the constitution, as well as the consistent separation of powers, could be successfully implemented only under the condition of a relatively stable domestic political situation, which was not the case in France at that time. Meanwhile, the constitution did not contain the proper legal means of stabilizing society. Moreover, it did not provide for the necessary "balances" in the event of a possible conflict between the constitutional authorities. In Art. 68 it was said that if the president violates the constitution, it is possible to deprive him of his powers and transfer executive power to the National Assembly. But the Assembly was not given the real power to make this possible. The president, on the contrary, did not have the constitutional authority to dissolve the National Assembly, but he could do it by force. The liberal-democratic provisions of the constitution proved to be short-lived. First, a 6-month residency requirement for voters was introduced, then it was increased to three years. The determination of the period of residence of workers was made dependent on the testimony of employers. As a result, over 3 million citizens were struck off the voter lists. The adoption of a special law worsened the financial situation of the democratic press. 8. Second Empire Presidential coup. The first elected President of the Republic was Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. A political adventurer, Louis-Napoleon was elected mainly due to the votes of the peasants, who naively believed the Bonapartist agitators who assured that "his uncle's nephew" would reduce the burden of taxes, provide cheap loans, etc. These promises were not kept. But a long time had to pass before the Bonapartist illusions of the peasantry dissipated forever. As for the bankers and big businessmen, the candidacy of Louis Napoleon suited them mainly insofar as they connected with his initial popularity and ambition plans to establish a strong government in the country that could prevent new revolutionary uprisings and provide them with complete freedom for speculation within the country and colonial seizures for outside of it. Louis Napoleon took advantage of all this. His desire to remain in power was thwarted by a constitutionally mandated term for the presidency (four years) and a ban on re-election. In December 1851, in gross violation of the constitution, Louis Napoleon, relying on the worst elements of the army, dispersed the National Assembly. The most active anti-Bonapartists were arrested. The constitution of 1848 was abolished. By military-police measures, the republican-democratic groups and organizations that still remained by that time were crushed or driven underground. Many Republicans were forced to emigrate. The Constitution of 1852 The new constitution was called upon to legislate the coup d'état of 1851. The entirety of state power was transferred to the president. All the main links of the state mechanism were subordinated to him, including the army, gendarmerie, police, and the administrative and financial apparatus. The president received the right to appoint and remove all senior officials at his own discretion. Legislative power was exercised by the State Council, the Legislative Corps and the Senate, but already together with the President. He appointed the members of the Council of State and the Senate. The legislative body was elected by "universal suffrage", but the candidates for deputies were approved by the president. Only the head of state was given the right to initiate legislation: on the basis of the president's proposals, the State Council drafted bills. The latter were accepted or rejected as a whole by the Legislative Corps. The Senate was endowed with the right of constitutional control in the field of legislation. Local government has not undergone significant changes this time either. The coup of 1851 did not in the least affect the state apparatus. Just as the Napoleonic constitution of 1799 was an intermediate stage on the way to the establishment of the monarchy, so the constitution of 1852 prepared the conditions for the proclamation of the empire. The only difference between a president and a monarch was that his power was not hereditary. He was elected for 10 years. Empire Restoration. In November 1852, the empire was restored de jure by a special law, and Louis Napoleon became emperor of the French under the name of Napoleon III. The military-police dictatorship of Louis Napoleon was established in the country. The new regime had some specific features. Playing on contradictions, maneuvering between the interests of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, the empire tried to play the role of an intermediary between them, a supra-class arbiter, trying to inspire the idea of the possibility of eliminating inter-social contradictions by peaceful means with the assistance of the authorities. At the same time, the monarchy persecuted democratic organizations. At the end of the 60s. 19th century Attempts were made through separate minor concessions: expanding the rights of the Senate and the Legislative Corps, softening press censorship - to weaken the revolutionary ferment. In 1870, the government announced the adoption of a new, "liberal" constitution, as the official press called it, the most important innovation of which was some expansion of the powers of the Legislative Corps. Bonapartism. In the politics of the empire in the late 60s. 19th century the characteristic feature of the Bonapartist government was revealed in its entirety - a combination of demagogy and repression. The empire saw a way out of the growing difficulties mainly in a new war. The victorious war, according to the ruling circles, was supposed to strengthen the shaken prestige of the Bonapartist regime, divert the attention of ordinary citizens from the problems of the country's internal life. In the summer of 1870, Louis Napoleon launched a war against Prussia, which, however, did a lot to provoke him to this. He intended, among other things, to prevent the historically inevitable unification of Germany. Other German states took the side of Prussia. The war with the united Germany led by Prussia fully revealed the fragility of the Bonapartist empire.
Second Republic. Revolution of 1848 In the winter of 1848 the population of Paris, especially the workers, rose up in an armed uprising. The immediate impetus for the uprising was the shooting in February of this year of a peaceful unarmed demonstration of Parisians who demanded the democratization of the political system and the adoption of concrete measures to improve the difficult economic situation of the people. The atrocity of the government caused a storm of indignation. The very next day, the rebels captured the main strategic points of the capital. Louis Philippe abdicated. The Provisional Government was formed from representatives of the liberal democratic opposition. A republic was proclaimed. The government pledged to introduce universal direct suffrage. The Labor Decree proclaimed the right to work and the obligation of the state to provide everyone with work, to reduce the working day in Paris to 10 hours and in the provinces to 11. Other democratic measures were promised. At the same time, the government strengthened the armed forces. A mercenary so-called mobile guard was created. Formed mainly from the declassed elements of society, it became the mainstay of the government in the fight against the radical movement. Soon the Provisional Government raised taxes, which hit the peasantry especially hard. The government tried to use their dissatisfaction for its own purposes, arguing that the increase in taxes was due to the need to support Parisian workers, who allegedly wanted to live at the expense of the state.
In the spring of 1848, elections were held for the Constituent Assembly, which was supposed to adopt the constitution of the republic. The overwhelming majority of the Assembly consisted of big bourgeois and landowners, generals, and representatives of the higher clergy. After the elections, the new ruling circles canceled all normative acts that provided for some improvement in the situation of workers. It is possible that the bourgeois government, encouraged by the results of the elections, deliberately provoked the workers to take action. The uprising began on June 22, 1848. For four days the workers fought heroically on the barricades, but, having no allies, they were defeated by the regular army of mobiles (mobile guards).
Constitution of 1848 The main principles of the state system established by the constitution were: republican form of government, separation of powers, representative government. The National Assembly was declared the supreme body of legislative power. He was given the exclusive right to adopt laws, including the budget, the resolution of issues of war and peace, the approval of trade agreements and some other issues. The deputies of the Assembly were elected for a term of three years. The head of the executive branch was the president. Under his command were the army, the police, the administrative apparatus. The president appointed and dismissed ministers, commanders of the army and navy, prefects, governors of the colonies, and other senior officials. The Constituent Assembly placed the president in a largely independent position from parliament: the president was elected by electors from the departments, and not by the Assembly. The State Council was established as an advisory body considering government bills. It was also responsible for overseeing the application of laws. The members of the Council of State were appointed by the National Assembly for a term of six years. The bodies of central and local government did not undergo any significant changes. The former administrative-territorial division into departments, districts and communes was preserved. The power of the prefect in the department remained unchanged. Universal and direct suffrage by secret ballot was introduced. All French people over the age of 21 enjoying civil and political rights could vote. The same persons who had reached the age of 25 could be elected. A special chapter of the constitution was devoted to the democratic rights and freedoms of citizens. The democratic institutions fixed in the constitution, as well as the consistent separation of powers, could be successfully implemented only under the condition of a relatively stable domestic political situation, which was not the case in France at that time.
Meanwhile, the constitution did not contain the proper legal means of stabilizing society. Moreover, it did not provide for the necessary "balances" in the event of a possible conflict between the constitutional authorities. In Art. 68 it was said that if the president violates the constitution, it is possible to deprive him of his powers and transfer executive power to the National Assembly. But the Assembly was not given the real power to make this possible. The president, on the contrary, did not have the constitutional authority to dissolve the National Assembly, but he could do it by force. The liberal-democratic provisions of the constitution proved to be short-lived. First, a 6-month residency requirement for voters was introduced, then it was increased to three years. The determination of the period of residence of workers was made dependent on the testimony of employers. As a result, over 3 million citizens were struck off the voter lists. The adoption of a special law worsened the financial situation of the democratic press.
8. Second Empire Presidential coup. The first elected President of the Republic was Louis Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. A political adventurer, Louis-Napoleon was elected mainly due to the votes of the peasants, who naively believed the Bonapartist agitators who assured that "his uncle's nephew" would reduce the burden of taxes, provide cheap loans, etc. These promises were not kept. But a long time had to pass before the Bonapartist illusions of the peasantry dissipated forever. As for the bankers and big businessmen, the candidacy of Louis Napoleon suited them mainly insofar as they connected with his initial popularity and ambition plans to establish a strong government in the country that could prevent new revolutionary uprisings and provide them with complete freedom for speculation within the country and colonial seizures for outside of it.
Louis Napoleon took advantage of all this. His desire to remain in power was thwarted by a constitutionally mandated term for the presidency (four years) and a ban on re-election. In December 1851, in gross violation of the constitution, Louis Napoleon, relying on the worst elements of the army, dispersed the National Assembly. The most active anti-Bonapartists were arrested. The constitution of 1848 was abolished. By military-police measures, the republican-democratic groups and organizations that still remained by that time were crushed or driven underground. Many Republicans were forced to emigrate.
The Constitution of 1852 The new constitution was called upon to legislate the coup d'état of 1851. The entirety of state power was transferred to the president. All the main links of the state mechanism were subordinated to him, including the army, gendarmerie, police, and the administrative and financial apparatus. The president received the right to appoint and remove all senior officials at his own discretion. Legislative power was exercised by the State Council, the Legislative Corps and the Senate, but already together with the President. He appointed the members of the Council of State and the Senate. The legislative body was elected by "universal suffrage", but the candidates for deputies were approved by the president. Only the head of state was given the right to initiate legislation: on the basis of the president's proposals, the State Council drafted bills. The latter were accepted or rejected as a whole by the Legislative Corps. The Senate was endowed with the right of constitutional control in the field of legislation. Local government has not undergone significant changes this time either. The coup of 1851 did not in the least affect the state apparatus. Just as the Napoleonic constitution of 1799 was an intermediate stage on the way to the establishment of the monarchy, so the constitution of 1852 prepared the conditions for the proclamation of the empire. The only difference between a president and a monarch was that his power was not hereditary. He was elected for 10 years.
Empire Restoration. In November 1852, the empire was restored de jure by a special law, and Louis Napoleon became emperor of the French under the name of Napoleon III. The military-police dictatorship of Louis Napoleon was established in the country. The new regime had some specific features. Playing on contradictions, maneuvering between the interests of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, the empire tried to play the role of an intermediary between them, a supra-class arbiter, trying to inspire the idea of the possibility of eliminating inter-social contradictions by peaceful means with the assistance of the authorities. At the same time, the monarchy persecuted democratic organizations. At the end of the 60s. 19th century Attempts were made through separate minor concessions: expanding the rights of the Senate and the Legislative Corps, softening press censorship - to weaken the revolutionary ferment. In 1870, the government announced the adoption of a new, "liberal" constitution, as the official press called it, the most important innovation of which was some expansion of the powers of the Legislative Corps.
Bonapartism. In the politics of the empire in the late 60s. 19th century the characteristic feature of the Bonapartist government was revealed in its entirety - a combination of demagogy and repression. The empire saw a way out of the growing difficulties mainly in a new war. The victorious war, according to the ruling circles, was supposed to strengthen the shaken prestige of the Bonapartist regime, divert the attention of ordinary citizens from the problems of the country's internal life. In the summer of 1870, Louis Napoleon launched a war against Prussia, which, however, did a lot to provoke him to this. He intended, among other things, to prevent the historically inevitable unification of Germany. Other German states took the side of Prussia. The war with the united Germany led by Prussia fully revealed the fragility of the Bonapartist empire.
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Third Republic in France. Constitutional Laws of 1875
The second empire lasted until 1870. The first battles of the Franco-Prussian War revealed the decay
Second Republic in France. Constitution of 1848. Second empire
The coalition of states that had won a decisive victory over Napoleon hurried to place Louis XVIII, the eldest representative of the "legitimate" (legitimate) dynasty, on the French throne. The new rulers of France had to recognize the "redistribution" of landed property, the bourgeois civil code developed under Napoleon and the destruction of feudal relations, as well as the new administration of France. They agreed to gift France with a written constitution, known as the Charter of 1834, which would to reconcile the tops of the bourgeoisie with the nobility:it was recognized that citizens "are equally admitted to civil and military posts";
the supreme power of the king was limited by the legislative powers of the chambers and the irremovability of judges. Two chambers were created: the upper, appointed by the king, and the lower, elected by a narrow collegium, consisting of persons paying at least 300 francs of direct taxes;
The charter wanted "all French to live as brothers".
Louis XVIII reigned until 1824. His place was taken by Charles X (Artois), the recognized head of French reaction. The new king rewarded the nobles who lost their lands during the revolution; then restored the death penalty for "insulting" the Catholic religion. In 1830, Charles X issued 6 decrees (ordinances): the right to vote was narrowed, the legislative competence of the lower house was reduced, and freedom of the press and assembly was eliminated. The response to this policy was the July Uprising of 1830. Charles X was overthrown and fled. The big, mainly financial, bourgeoisie, which led the revolution, placed Louis Philippe of Orleans on the throne. The new reign was furnished with a new constitution. There were few changes: the electoral qualification was lowered slightly - to 200 francs; for deputies - up to 500. The period when the leading role in the state was in the hands of a small group of financial magnates.
Second Republic: in the 40s of the XIX century, the era of large-scale machine production begins. Consequences: increased hostility between the working class, on the one hand, and the bourgeoisie, on the other; their general dissatisfaction with the regime of the July Monarchy. The industrial bourgeoisie was unwilling to tolerate the political monopoly of the financial aristocracy. 1847 - crop failure, world trade and industrial crisis - revolution. The opposition circles of the bourgeoisie demanded a reduction in the electoral qualification. February 22 - The working-class suburbs of Paris rise up in defense of the electoral reform. The government sent troops against the demonstrators. Cavalry and infantry attacked unarmed and peaceful people who demanded bread and reform. The fight continued throughout the next day. The rebels capture the Tuileries. France became a republic for the second time. Having conquered the republic, the workers hoped that it would be social, i.e. provide them with sufficient wages, take care of their old age, education for children, etc. These hopes were dashed. The Constituent Assembly, which opened on May 4, proclaimed a bourgeois republic, and only that.
The workers revolted again, this time not together with the bourgeoisie, but against it. The reason for the uprising was the deliberate liquidation of the National Workshops, which provided income to thousands of unemployed. The dismissed had to go to work in the province. At the request of the workers to cancel the order, the government threatened to use force. The battle went on for five days. The uprising was spontaneous. There was no definite plan of action, no clear program, no directing center. "We want a social and democratic republic, the autocracy of the people." There were 50,000 killed.
Terror was still rampant when the Constituent Assembly resumed deliberations on the new constitution of 1848:
declared France a republic, its principles - freedom, equality, fraternity, and its foundations - family, labor, property and public order;
the entire old organization of administration, the municipalities, the courts and the army remained intact. The changes concerned not the content, but the table of contents, not things, but names;
any power in the state comes from the people, cannot be entrusted to anyone with the right to pass it on by inheritance;
the abolition of any special commissions, emergency courts, the death penalty for political crimes;
legalization of universal male suffrage. But on the other hand, a restrictive clause was introduced - six months of residence. In 1850, the residence requirement was increased to three years.
each time, after the solemn proclamation of another freedom, there followed a clause limiting it: "Teaching is free. The freedom of teaching can be enjoyed under the conditions provided for by law and under the supreme supervision of the state"; "Citizens have the right to form unions, to organize peaceful and unarmed assemblies ... to express their opinion in the press ... The exercise of these rights knows no other restrictions than the equal rights of others and public safety."
the publication of laws to the National Assembly (unicameral, elected for 3 years), the executive branch - to the President of the Republic (4 years, by popular vote - a plebiscite). Direct elections created for the President the same authority as the "people's choice" as for the National Assembly itself. The president handed out positions, including officer positions, local governments depended on him, and the armed forces (including the National Guard) were actually subordinate to him. Any attempt by the President to dissolve the Assembly is treason;
Second Empire: In December 1848, Louis Napoleon was elected president. Deprived of the right to re-election, the president had to wait for the expiration of the legal 4-year term, followed by the end of greatness. Louis Napoleon decided to avoid this fate. The President of the Republic was preparing its overthrow. On December 2, 1851, a special proclamation informed Paris that "in the name of the French people" the President of the Republic was dissolving the National Assembly. From the text of another proclamation, one could conclude that the coup was carried out for the sake of the following state structure: the president, elected for 10 years; a state council that develops bills; the legislative body and the "balancing" senate; ministries appointed and removed by the will of the president. Under the guise of a republic adorned with universal suffrage, a dictatorship of one person was decreed. The beginning of the new dictatorship was marked by bloodshed. Wild reprisals against the Republicans were committed throughout France.
In January 1852, a new constitution was approved. At the center of the entire system of government was the president. His power concerned both legislation and administration. He appointed and dismissed ministers. The court was administered in his name. In his power were the army and the police. He declared a state of siege. He issued decrees and approved laws.
In November 1852, the Senate and then a plebiscite (general vote) proclaim him Emperor of France under the name of Napoleon III. The second empire lasted until 1870. The first battles of the Franco-Prussian War revealed the decay of the French government and army. Finally, near Sedan, the Prussian-German troops forced the 100,000-strong French army to capitulate. This catastrophe raised Paris to its feet. The people broke into the Legislative Assembly. Under his direct pressure, the abolition of the empire and the restoration of the republic, the third in a row, were decreed. This happened on September 4, 1870. Power ended up in the hands of a narrow handful of professional politicians and military men who appropriated the name of the "national defense" government. The new government of France focused its efforts mainly on reaching an agreement with Prussia at any cost: they were afraid of a revolutionary situation that developed as a result of military defeat, economic ruin, and the poverty of the masses.
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Second empire lasted until 1870 of the year. The first battles of the Franco-Prussian War were disintegrated. Second Republic in France. Constitution 1848 of the year. -
Second Republic in France. Constitution 1848 of the year.
Second empire lasted until 1870 of the year. The first battles of the Franco-Prussian War revealed the decay of the government and the army France. -
Second Republic in France. Constitution 1848 of the year.
Directory. Consulate. Empire. Constitution 1795 and 1799 years years. -
Second Republic in France. Constitution 1848 of the year.
Second empire lasted until 1870 of the year. The first battles of the Franco-Prussian War revealed the decomposition of ... more ». -
Second empire lasted until 1870 of the year. First the battles of the Franco-Prussian War revealed decay.
If the application does not run on your phone, please use this form. Establishment of the Fourth republics in France. -
Weimar constitution 1919 of the year. The fate of the Weimar republics.
The capital of Prussia Berlin was covered with barricades (March 1848 of the year).
Having defeated France, Prussia deprived the South German states of freedom of choice; they became part of the unified German empire. -
Empire. Constitution 1795 and 1799 years. Senate-Consultations of 1802 and 1804 years.
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Throughout the existence of the July Monarchy (1830-1848), the movement for democratic change grew stronger, which resulted in the revolution of 1848. On February 25, 1848, the Second Republic was proclaimed in France. The Provisional Government was formed and on the basis of the new suffrage (21 years and 6 months residence) elections were held to the Constituent Assembly, which on November 4, 1848 adopted the Constitution of the Second Republic (116 articles). France was proclaimed a social republic.
During the period of the Provisional Government, a 45-centimeter tax was introduced, which increased by 45% the direct tax on each franc falling on landowners, which caused discontent among the peasantry, but the government used their anger for its own purposes, declaring that this goes to the maintenance of the Parisian workers. "National workshops" were also established, employing poor workers.
After the elections to the constituent assembly, where the big bourgeois and other conservative circles won the majority of seats, they decided to cancel all the provisions that made life easier for the workers, including the liquidation of the national workshops, which at that time employed about 100 thousand people. As a result of these actions, the workers of Paris rose in revolt on June 22, 1848 (known as the June uprising), but without the support of the peasantry, outraged by the 45 centime tax, fell after 4 days under the attacks of mobile troops, consisting of declassed elements of society.
Unlike all previous Constitutions, in which, as a rule, the emphasis was placed on the natural rights of man, this one emphasized the general social purpose of the state. The state helped the poor, looked for work for the unemployed, there were various kinds of benefits. Property, labor and the family were recognized as the basis of the republic.
For the first time in the history of France, the institution of the presidency was introduced, which was elected for 4 years without the right to re-election.
Powers of the President:
1. Introduction of bills;
2. Suspensive veto;
3. Pardon;
4. Leadership of the army;
5. Conducting foreign policy;
6. Appointment and removal of senior officials.
Limitation of the power of the President:
1. Lack of personal command of the army;
2. The veto was canceled by the decision of the Parliament;
3. Parliament could not be dissolved by the President.
The National Assembly (parliament) was unicameral and consisted of 750 people elected for 3 years, on the basis of universal direct male suffrage by secret ballot. Voters were all citizens over 21 years of age, elected over 25 years of age. The deputies were untouchable and irrevocable.
State Council - formed by the National Assembly for a period of 6 years. He preliminarily considered bills, supervised the implementation of laws, and created administrative charters.
The 1848 Constitution introduced the separation of powers, but did not introduce a system of checks and balances, which ultimately led to the strengthening of the presidency, the abolition of certain articles of the Constitution, and authoritarianism.
Second Empire in France
After the election of the Constitution of 1848, it became clear that the positions of the Republicans were noticeably shaken. The peasantry was losing faith in the republican form of government, there were all sorts of agitations that the republic brought France only troubles, and against the background of them, the authority of Bonaparte, who was rumored to be the "Peasant Emperor", grew. In addition, there were also divisions within the monarchists, in particular between the Bourbonists and the Orléanists. Everything gave good ground for Louis Bonaparte's coup d'état on December 2, 1851, when, under the pretext of protecting the empire, he dispersed the National Assembly with the help of army forces and established presidential power, but in fact dictatorial power.
To strengthen his position, he returned universal suffrage and launched mass terror against the monarchist opposition, but mainly against the Democrats and Republicans. On January 14, 1852, he promulgated a new Constitution which closely resembled the Constitution of 1799 in its main features. The term of his presidency according to the Constitution was equal to 10 years.
Powers of the President:
1. Appointment of ministers who were independent of the National Assembly;
2. Leadership of the army;
3. Leadership of the police.
4. Presidency in the Senate and the Council of State;
5. Determination of the expenditure side of the budget;
6. Issuance of decrees.
All those who occupy the highest positions had to swear allegiance to him.
The legislative process was under the control of the president. There were 3 legislative bodies - the State Council, the legislative body and the Senate. Of these, only the Legislative Corps was elected, the rest were appointed directly by the President. The Senate, at the initiative of the President, could make changes to the constitutional order. This is what happened when, on December 2, 1852, France was proclaimed an empire by a Senate Consultation, and Louis Bonaparte an emperor with the name Napoleon III Bonaparte.
In the new political conditions, characterized by the growth of political consciousness among the working masses, Napoleon III constantly had to maneuver between various political forces. The stick and stick method was used. In foreign policy, certain freedoms for entrepreneurs were also introduced, and economic liberalism was put into effect. Members of the State Council participated in the speculation. But at the same time, against the backdrop of economic liberalism, political freedoms were lost.
After the proclamation of the empire, democracy was practically lost. So the elections to the Legislative Corps were placed under the control of the central government, a system of "official candidates" was introduced, when the candidates were approved by the local authorities, thereby fighting the opposition.
In the 60s. in connection with the growing discontent of the workers, Napoleon III was forced to carry out several liberal reforms (the period of the "liberal monarchy"), but all these reforms were insignificant.
On March 1, 1854, the Gendarme Corps was restored by imperial decree, which was considered as an integral part of the army and was used to fight the opposition. Was under the control of the Minister of War.
The main mechanism of power of Napoleon III was the army, even though he came to power using the slogan “Empire is peace”, but during his reign he repeatedly dragged the country into various political adventures. As a rule, this was carried out in order to distract people from pressing problems. So in 1870 France was involved in the war with Prussia.
The French army was unprepared for serious military action and, as a result, lost the war. After the defeat in the battle of Sedan, the emperor was captured, and an uprising was raised in Paris, as a result of which the Parisian governor, General Troilo, came to power, and before that, on September 4, 1870, Napoleon III was removed from power.
The provisional government, for the most part, sought to calm the population of Paris and hold elections for the Constituent National Assembly, to which it transferred power in February 1871.
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Formed as a result of the February Revolution, the provisional government, which consisted mainly of moderate politicians, under direct pressure from the popular masses of Paris on February 25, 1848, proclaimed France a republic. The revolutionary situation forced the provisional government, which was not inclined to make hasty decisions before the elections of the Constituent Assembly, to make some social concessions: to adopt a decree on the reduction of one hour of the working day, to organize national workshops for the unemployed. Frank monarchists and reactionaries were removed from the state apparatus, troops were withdrawn from Paris. But at its core, the police-bureaucratic machine of the July Monarchy remained intact. In an effort to preserve this machine, to prevent a new revolutionary collapse of state power, the provisional government hastened to hold elections to the Constituent Assembly, designed to develop a constitution for the republic.
Although universal suffrage was established for the elections to the Constituent Assembly and any property qualification was excluded, a real transition to broad democracy in France did not take place. The Constituent Assembly reflected a wide range of political forces: from monarchists (on the right flank) to worker deputies (on the left). But the overwhelming majority of seats in the assembly (out of 900) were won by moderate republicans, chosen by the votes of provincial electors, that is, mainly by peasants. These deputies were afraid of new political upheavals, treated the rebellious population of Paris with distrust, easily fell under the influence of the monarchists and thus became the "republicans of yesterday."
The conservative majority of the meeting tentatively intended to take away from the workers of Paris the concessions made during the February Revolution. The announcement of the closure of the national workshops provoked the workers of Paris to the June uprising, which was brutally suppressed by General Cavaignac, who received full executive power and special dictatorial powers from the Constituent Assembly.
Adopted on November 4, 1848, the Constitution of the Second Republic was a document that reflected the contradictions of its era. It consolidated the interests not of the revolutionary, romantically minded bourgeoisie, but of the moderate and even conservative bourgeoisie, which turned into the dominant force in society and the state, and assumed responsibility for the constitutional order.
Based on the doctrine of popular sovereignty and regarding the people as the source of power, the constitution combined this doctrine with the Catholic tenets of divine predestination. It emphasized that it was adopted "before God and on behalf of the French people."
The constitution of 1848, which fixed the republican system and the system of republican institutions, could not ignore the recent monarchical past of France. It specifically declared that "public power cannot be inherited" (Article 18). It also secured universal suffrage, which was considered by public opinion as one of the main indicators of the democratic character of the Second Republic.
Under the influence of revolutionary events, the majority of the Constituent Assembly was forced to use new constitutional approaches and guidelines that take into account the egalitarian sentiments that have spread widely among the lower strata of the population and the demands of a "social republic". The constitution no longer emphasized the natural rights of man and the individualism associated with them. But in it an attempt was made to give a new interpretation of the republic and to determine the social purpose and responsibility of state power. Thus, one of the goals of the republic was declared "a freer march along the path of progress and civilization, the introduction of a more equitable distribution of public duties and benefits." The Republic took upon itself the obligation "by means of fraternal assistance" to ensure the existence of needy citizens, looking for work corresponding to their abilities, or supporting those who have no relatives and are not able to work. The Constitution of 1848 took the first step in recognizing the right to work. It provided that the society "organizes, through the mediation of the state, departments or communes, public works designed to provide employment to the unemployed."
Paying tribute to the egalitarian sentiments of the broad masses of France, the constitution unambiguously and decisively consolidated the definitively established by the middle of the 19th century. capitalist system, paved the way for the search for class compromises. Family, work, property and social order were declared the basis of the republic. The Constitution of 1848 directly rejected revolutionary methods of struggle, emphasizing that the republic "strives without new upheavals, only by the consistent and constant action of laws and institutions, to raise citizens to the highest level of morality, enlightenment and well-being." The democratic rights declared in the constitution were considered as an integral element of the republican legal order. The exercise of freedoms was not to go beyond "public safety" or beyond the limits established by special legislation.
The system of state bodies of the Second Republic, according to the Constitution of 1848, was based on the principle of separation of powers ("separation of powers is the first condition for free government" - Art. 19). However, the central place in this system was assigned to the executive power, which was delegated by the people to "a citizen who receives the title of president of the republic." The president did not depend on parliament and was elected for 4 years directly by the population. The president was endowed with broad powers: the right to introduce bills, the right of a suspensive veto, the right to pardon, etc. He appointed and dismissed ministers, and on the advice of the latter - diplomats, commanders-in-chief of the fleet and army, prefects, rulers of Algeria and colonies, as well as a number of other officials persons. True, the president could not be immediately re-elected for a second term, he did not have the right to dissolve the National Assembly, but due to his independence from the representative body, he could uncontrollably dispose of all the levers of executive power: ministers, a powerful police and bureaucratic apparatus, the army. National Assembly, elected for 3 years by secret ballot by the French over 21 years old on the basis of universal suffrage, that is, without a property qualification, was endowed with legislative power. It consisted of 750 deputies and was not divided into two chambers, as was provided for by most previous constitutions. The National Assembly did not have real opportunities to influence the policy of the executive apparatus and thus was doomed to turn into a body without authority and political power.
The constitution provided for the establishment State Council, appointed for 6 years by the National Assembly. The creation of this council also weakened the position of parliament. The competence of the State Council included the preliminary consideration of bills coming from both the government and the National Assembly itself. Its jurisdiction also included control and supervision of the administration and resolution of administrative disputes arising in the course of its activities, i.e., the functions administrative justice.
The weaknesses of the constitutional system of the Second Republic, stemming primarily from the unreality of its social promises and the vulnerable organization of state power, immediately revealed themselves in the new post-revolutionary balance of political forces, the rapid spread of conservative and even monarchist sentiments.