Today, coal is one of the most important minerals.

This resource is formed naturally, has huge reserves and a lot of useful properties.

What is coal and what does it look like?

The construction of a mine is a very expensive investment, but over time, all costs are fully paid off. When coal is mined, other resources also come to the surface.

There is a possibility of extracting precious metals and rare earth elements, which can later be sold and receive additional profit.

Oil is practically the most precious resource and the main source of fuel today. However, not a single company or country that extracts coal will neglect its extraction in the name of oil, because solid fuel is also of great importance and high value.

Formation of hard coal

Coal in nature is formed by changing the surface relief. Tree branches, plants, leaves and other natural remains that have not had time to rot are saturated with moisture from the swamps, which is why they are converted into peat.

Then sea water enters the land, when it leaves, it also leaves a layer of sediment. After the rivers make their own adjustments, the land becomes swampy, re-forms or covers the soil. Therefore, the composition of coal is highly dependent on age.

Coal is medium in age between brown, the youngest, and anthracite, the oldest.

Types of coal, their composition and properties

There are several types of coal:

• long-flame;
• gas;
• fatty;
• coke;
• weakly caking;
• skinny.

Also common are species consisting of several, the so-called mixed, with the properties of two groups.

Coal is black in color, hard, layered, easily destroyed structure, has shiny inclusions. The combustible properties are quite high, since the material is used as a fuel.

Consider physical characteristics:

1. Density (or specific gravity) varies greatly (the maximum can reach 1500 kg / m³).
2. The specific heat capacity is 1300 J/kg*K.
3. The combustion temperature is 2100°C (when processing 1000°C).

Coal deposits in Russia

About a third of the world's reserves are located on Russian territory.

Deposits of coal and oil shale in Russia (click to enlarge)

The largest coal deposit in Russia is Elginskoye. It is located in the region of Yakutia.

Reserves according to approximate calculations are more than 2 billion tons.

The relief, close to the Kuznetsk coal basin (Kuzbass), was severely damaged due to large-scale resource extraction.

The largest coal deposits in the world

Map of coal deposits in the world (click to enlarge)

In the United States, the most famous coal basin is the Illinois. The total reserve of deposits in this field is 365 billion tons.

Coal mining

Coal is currently mined in three fundamental ways. Such as:

• career method;
• mining through adits;
• mining method.

The quarry mining method is used when coal seams lie on the surface, about a hundred meters deep and above.

Quarrying involves simply digging the earth or sand hole from which mining is carried out, usually in such cases the coal seam is thick enough to make it easier to extract.

Adits mean wells with a large angle of inclination. According to it, all mined minerals are delivered to the top, while there is no need to use serious equipment or dig a hollow.

Typically, deposits in such places are of small thickness and are not buried particularly deep. Therefore, the method of mining through adits allows you to quickly produce mining without much cost.

Extraction through mines is the most common method of mining, at the same time the most productive, but at the same time dangerous. Mines are drilled to a great depth, reaching several hundred meters. However, this requires a permit confirming the rationale for such large-scale work, evidence of the presence of deposits.

At times, mines can reach a kilometer or more in depth, and stretch for several kilometers in length, forming interconnected webs of corridors underground. In the 20th century, over time, even settlements and small towns were formed around the mines, in which miners lived with their families.

It is precisely because of the mining conditions that work in the mines is considered very difficult and dangerous, because a huge number of times the mines collapsed, burying dozens or even hundreds of people working there.

The use of coal

Coal is used in a variety of fields. It is widely used as a solid fuel (the main purpose), in metallurgy and in the chemical industry, plus many other components are produced from it.

It is from coal that some aromatic substances, metals, chemicals are produced, more than 360 other processed products are obtained.

In turn, the substances produced from it have a market value ten times higher, the most expensive method is considered to be the method of processing coal into liquid fuel.

To produce 1 ton of liquid fuel, it will be necessary to process 2-3 tons of coal. All industrial waste obtained during processing is often sent to the production of building materials.

Conclusion

There are many coal deposits on earth that are actively developed to this day. In biology lessons in the 5th grade and even earlier, in the lessons of natural history in the second grade, children get acquainted with this concept. In this work, we briefly repeated the main facts about coal - origin, formula, grades, chemical composition and use, extraction, and much more.

Coal is one of the most important resources widely used in industry. However, you should still be careful when the natural course of substances is disturbed, because the development violates the relief and gradually depletes natural reserves.

Stuart E. Nevins, MS.

Accumulated, compacted and processed plants form a sedimentary rock, which is called coal. Coal is not only a source of great economic value, but also a breed that has a special appeal to the student of earth history. Despite the fact that coal forms less than one percent of all sedimentary rocks on earth, it is of great importance to geologists who trust the Bible. It is coal that gives the Christian geologist one of the strongest geological arguments in favor of the reality of the global Noah's Flood.

Two theories have been proposed to explain the formation of coal. The popular theory, held by most uniformitarian geologists, is that the plants that make up coal accumulated in huge freshwater swamps or peat bogs over many thousands of years. This first theory, which assumes the growth of plant material at the site of its discovery, is called autochthonous theory .

The second theory suggests that the coal seams accumulated from plants that were quickly transported from other places and deposited under flooding conditions. This second theory, according to which there was a movement of plant debris, is called allochthonous theory .

fossils in coal

The types of fossil plants that are found in coal are obviously do not support the autochthonous theory. Fossil trees of club mosses (for example, Lepidodendron And Sigillaria) and giant ferns (especially Psaronius) characteristic of Pennsylvania coal deposits may have had some ecological tolerance to swampy conditions, while other fossil plants of the Pennsylvania Basin (for example, conifer Cordaites, wintering giant horsetail Calamites, various extinct fern-like gymnosperms) in accordance with their basic structure must have preferred well-dried soils rather than swamps. Many researchers believe that the anatomical structure of fossil plants indicates that they grew in tropical or subtropical climates (an argument that can be used against the autochthonous theory), since modern swamps are the most extensive and have the deepest accumulation of peat in cooler climates. higher latitudes. Due to the increased evaporative power of the sun, modern tropical and subtropical areas are the poorest in peat.

Often found in the corner marine fossils, such as fossil fish, molluscs, and brachiopods (brachiopods). Coal seams are found to be balls of coal, which are rounded masses of crumpled and incredibly well-preserved plants, as well as fossil animals (including marine animals) that are directly related to these coal seams. The small marine annelids, Spirorbis, are generally found attached to coal plants in Europe and North America that date back to the Carboniferous. Since the anatomical structure of fossil plants shows little evidence that they were adapted to sea swamps, the occurrence of marine animals along with non-marine plants suggests that mixing occurred during movement, thus supporting the allochthonous theory model.

Among the most amazing types of fossils that are found in coal layers are vertical tree trunks, which are perpendicular to the bedding often intersect tens of feet of rock. These upright trees are often found in seams that are associated with coal deposits, and in rare cases they are found in the coal itself. In any case, sediment must accumulate quickly in order to cover the trees before they deteriorate and fall.

How long does it take for layers of sedimentary rocks to form? Take a look at this ten meter petrified tree, one of hundreds discovered in the coal mines of Cookeville, Tennessee, USA. This tree starts in one coal bed, goes up through numerous layers, and finally ends in another coal seam. Think about this: what would happen to the top of the tree in the thousands of years it takes (according to evolution) to form sedimentary layers and coal seams? Obviously, the formation of sedimentary layers and seams of coal had to be catastrophic (rapid) in order to bury the tree in an upright position before it rots and falls. Such "standing trees" are found in numerous places on earth and at different levels. Despite the evidence, long periods of time (required for evolution) are squeezed between the layers, for which there is no evidence.

One might get the impression that these trees are in their original growth position, but some evidence indicates that this is not the case at all, and even vice versa. Some trees cross the layers diagonally, and some are found upside down. Sometimes vertical trees appear to have taken root in a growth position in layers that are completely penetrated by a second vertical tree. The hollow trunks of fossil trees are usually filled with sedimentary rock that is different from the nearby surrounding rocks. Applicable to the examples described, the logic indicates the movement of these trunks.

fossil roots

The most important fossil, which is directly related to disputes over the origin of coal, is stigmaria- Fossil root or rhizome. Stigmaria it is most commonly found in seams that lie beneath coal seams and is generally associated with vertical trees. It was believed that stigmaria, which was studied 140 years ago by Charles Lyell and D.W. Dawson in the Carboniferous coal sequence in Nova Scotia, is clear evidence that the plant grew in this location.

Many modern geologists continue to insist that stigmaria is a root that formed in this place, and which goes into the soil below the coal marsh. The coal sequence of Nova Scotia was recently re-examined by H.A. Rupke, who found four arguments in favor of allochthonous origin of stigmaria obtained on the basis of the study of sedimentary deposits. The found fossil is usually clastic and rarely attached to the trunk, indicating a preferred orientation of its horizontal axis, which was created as a result of the action of the current. In addition, the trunk is filled with sediment that is unlike the rock surrounding the trunk, and is often found in many horizons in strata that are completely pierced by vertical trees. Rupke's research cast serious doubts on the popular autochthonous explanation of other strata in which stigmaria.

Cyclothemes

Coal usually occurs in a sequence of sedimentary rocks called cyclotheme .idealized Pennsylvania cyclotheme may have strata deposited in the following ascending order: sandstone, shale, limestone, underlying clay, coal, shale, limestone, shale. IN typical cyclotheme, as a rule, one of the constituent layers is missing. At each site cyclothemes each deposition cycle is usually repeated dozens of times, with each deposition resting on the previous deposition. In Illinois is fifty sequentially arranged cycles, and more than a hundred such cycles occur in West Virginia.

Although the coal seam that forms part of a typical cyclothemes, usually quite thin (typically one inch to several feet thick) the lateral arrangement of coal has incredible dimensions. In one of the recent stratigraphic studies4, a relationship was drawn between coal deposits: Broken Arrow (Oklahoma), Crowberg (Missouri), Whitebrest (Iowa), Colchester number 2 (Illinois), Coal IIIa (Indiana), Schultztown ( Western Kentucky), Princess Number 6 (Eastern Kentucky), and Lower Kittanning (Ohio and Pennsylvania). They all form one, huge coal seam that extends for hundreds of thousands of square kilometers in the central and eastern United States. No modern swamp has an area that even slightly approaches the size of the Pennsylvania coal deposits.

If the autochthonous model of coal formation is correct, then very unusual circumstances must have prevailed. The entire area, often tens of thousands of square kilometers, would have to simultaneously rise above sea level in order for the swamp to accumulate, and then it would have to sink in order to be flooded by the ocean. If the fossil forests rose too high above sea level, the swamp and its antiseptic water needed to accumulate peat would simply evaporate. If the marsh was invaded by the sea during the accumulation of peat, the marine conditions would destroy the plants and other sediments and the peat would not be deposited. Then, according to the popular model, the formation of a thick coal seam would indicate the maintenance of an incredible balance over many thousands of years between the rate of peat accumulation and sea level rise. This situation seems the most improbable, especially if we remember that the cyclotheme is repeated in a vertical section hundreds of times or even more. Or perhaps these cycles can best be explained as accumulation that occurred during the successive rise and retreat of the flood waters?

Shale

When it comes to the cyclotheme, the underlying clay is of most interest. The underlying clay is a soft layer of clay that is not arranged in layers and often lies beneath the coal seam. Many geologists believe that this is a fossil soil on which a swamp existed. The presence of underlying clay, especially when found in it stigmaria, often interpreted as enough proof autochthonous origin of coal-forming plants.

However, a recent study has questioned the interpretation of the underlying clay as fossil soil. No soil characteristics that were similar to those of modern soil have been found in the underlying clay. Some of the minerals found in the underlying soil are not the types of minerals that should be found in the soil. On the contrary, the underlying clays, as a rule, have rhythmic layering (larger granular material is located at the very bottom) and signs of the formation of clay flakes. These are simple characteristics of sedimentary rocks that would form in any layer that accumulated in water.

Many coal layers do not rest on the underlying clays, and there are no signs of soil existence. In some cases, coal seams rest on granite, slate, limestone, conglomerate, or other rocks that do not resemble soil. Underlayment clay without an overlying coal seam is common, and underlayment clay often overlies the coal seam. The absence of recognizable soils below the coal seams indicates that no type of lush vegetation could grow here and supports the idea that coal-forming plants were moved here.

Structure of coal

The study of the microscopic structure and structure of peat and coal helps to understand the origin of coal. A.D. Cohen initiated a comparative structural study of modern autochthonous peat formed from mangrove trees and a rare modern allochthonous coastal peat from south Florida. Most autochthonous peat contained plant fragments that had a disordered orientation with a predominant matrix of finer material, while allochthonous peat had an orientation formed by water flows with elongated axes of plant fragments, which were located, as a rule, parallel to the coastal surface with a characteristic absence of finer material. matrix. Poorly sorted plant debris in autochthonous peat had a large structure due to the intertwined mass of roots, while autochthonous peat had a characteristic microlayering due to the absence of ingrown roots.

In conducting this study, Cohen noted: "In the course of the study of allochthonous peat, one feature was revealed, which was that vertical sections of this material, made using a microtome, looked more like thin sections of coal than any autochthonous sample studied". Cohen drew attention to the fact that the characteristics of this autochthonous peat (orientation of elongated fragments, sorted granular structure with an overall lack of finer matrix, micro-layering with no entangled root structure) are also characteristics of coals of the Carboniferous period!

Lumps in the coal

One of the most impressive external features of coal is the presence of large blocks in it. For more than a hundred years, these large blocks have been found in coal seams around the world. P.H. Price conducted a study in which he studied large blocks of the Sewell coal deposit, which is located in West Virginia. The average weight of 40 boulders collected was 12 pounds, and the largest boulder weighed 161 pounds. Many cobblestones were volcanic or metamorphic rock, unlike all other rock outcrops in West Virginia. Price surmised that the large boulders could have weaved themselves into the roots of the trees and been transported here from afar. Thus, the presence of large blocks in the coal supports the allochthonous model.

coalification

Disputes regarding the nature of the process of turning peat into coal have been going on for many years. One existing theory suggests that it is time is the main factor in the coalification process. However, this theory fell out of favor because it was found that there was no systematic increase in the metamorphic stage of coal over time. There are several apparent inconsistencies: lignites, which are the lowest stage of metamorphism, occur in some of the oldest coal-bearing strata, while anthracites, which represent the highest grade of coal metamorphism, occur in younger strata.

The second theory regarding the process of turning peat into coal suggests that the main factor in the process of coal metamorphism is pressure. However, this theory is refuted by numerous geological examples in which the stage of coal metamorphism does not increase in highly deformed and folded seams. Moreover, laboratory experiments show that an increase in pressure can actually slow down chemical conversion of peat into coal.

The third theory (by far the most popular) suggests that the most important factor in the process of coal metamorphism is temperature. Geological examples (volcanic intrusions in coal seams and underground fires in mines) show that elevated temperatures can cause coalification. Laboratory experiments have also been quite successful in confirming this theory. Anthracite-like substance was formed in one experiment using a rapid heating process in just a few minutes, with most of the heat generated by the transformation of the cellulosic material. Thus, the metamorphism of coal does not require millions of years of exposure to heat and pressure - it can be formed as a result of rapid heating.

Conclusion

We see that a wealth of supporting evidence strongly supports the allochthonous theory and confirms the accumulation of multiple coal layers during Noah's Flood. Upright fossil trees inside coal layers confirm the rapid accumulation plant residues. Marine animals and terrestrial (rather than growing and living in a swamp) plants found in coal imply their movement. The microstructure of many coal seams has a specific particle orientation, sorted grain structure, and microlayering, which indicates movement (rather than in situ growth) of plant material. The large blocks present in the coal testify to the processes of movement. The absence of soil under many coal seams confirms the fact that coal-forming plants floated with the flow. Charcoal has been shown to form systematic and typical portions cyclothemes, which obviously, like other rocks, were deposited by water. Experiments to study the change in plant material show that coal-like anthracite does not need millions of years to form - it can be formed quickly under the influence of heat.

Links

*Professor of Geology and Archaeology, Christian Heritage College, El Cajon, California.

It takes a long time to turn peat into coal. Layers of peat gradually accumulated in peat bogs, and overgrown with more and more plants from above. At depth, complex compounds found in decaying plants break down into ever simpler ones. They are partially dissolved and carried away by water, and some of them pass into a gaseous state, forming methane and carbon dioxide. Bacteria and various fungi that inhabit all swamps and peat bogs also play an important role in the formation of coal, as they contribute to the rapid decomposition of plant tissues. Over time, in the process of such changes, carbon begins to accumulate in peat, as the most stable substance. Over time, carbon in peat becomes more and more.

An important condition for the accumulation of carbon in peat is the absence of oxygen access. Otherwise, carbon, having combined with oxygen, would have turned into carbon dioxide and escaped. The layers of peat that turn into coal are first isolated from the air and the oxygen contained in it by the water that covers them, and from above by newly emerging layers of peat from the decaying layer of plants and new thickets growing on them.

Coal stages

The first stage is lignite, loose brown coal, most similar to peat, not of the most ancient origin. The remains of plants, especially wood, are clearly visible in it, since it takes longer to decompose. Lignite is formed in modern peat bogs of the middle zone, and consists of reeds, sedges, peat moss. The woody peat that forms in the subtropical zone, such as the swamps of Florida in the United States, is very similar to fossil lignite.

Brown coal is created with a stronger decomposition and change in plant residues. Its color is black or dark brown, wood remains are less common in it, and there are no plant remains at all, it is stronger than lignite. When burning, brown coal emits much more heat, since there are more carbon compounds in it. Over time, brown coal turns into bituminous coal, but not always. The transformation process occurs only if a layer of brown coal sinks into deeper layers of the earth's crust when mountain building occurs. To turn brown coal into hard coal or anthracite, you need a very high temperature of the earth's interior and great pressure.

In coal, the remains of plants and wood can only be found under a microscope, it is shiny, heavy and strong almost like a stone. Black and coal called anthracite contains the highest amount of carbon. This coal is valued above all, since when burned it gives the most heat.

Borodino coal mine. Krasnoyarsk region


Officially, these are layers of biomass accumulation from forests and plants, coked under other layers. Or it was powerful ancient peat bogs (lower thickest layer).

This pattern of coal layers is ubiquitous:

Nazarovsky coal mine. Two thin layers close to the surface

The main layer with brown coal does not look like a random mass with petrified trunks of ancient trees chaotically laid. The reservoir has clear strata - many layers. That is, the official version with ancient trees is not suitable. And it is not suitable yet because of the high sulfur content in brown coal seams.

Table of content of some chemical elements in coals, peat, wood and oil.

In order not to think about the meaning of the table, I will write the conclusions from it.
1. Carbon. In wood, it is the least of the listed fuel sources. And it is not clear (if we take into account the traditional version of coal formation) why the amount of carbon increases with the accumulation of organic matter (wood or peat) in the layers. A contradiction that no one explains.
2. Nitrogen and oxygen. Nitrogen compounds are one of the building blocks of wood and vegetation. And why the amount of nitrogen decreased after the transformation of wood or peat into brown coal is again not clear. Again a contradiction.
3. Sulfur. In wood there is no amount sufficient for the accumulation of this chemical element. Even in peat, sulfur is negligible compared to the layers of brown and hard coal. Where does sulfur get into the layers? The only assumption is that there was sulfur in the layers from the very beginning. Mixed with organic? But somehow, the concentration of sulfur in coals coincides with the sulfur content in oil.

Usually sulfur is pyrite, sulfate and organic. As a rule, pyrite sulfur prevails. The sulfur contained in coals is usually in the form of magnesium, calcium and iron sulfates, iron pyrite (pyritic sulfur) and in the form of organic sulfur-containing compounds. Separately determine, as a rule, only sulfate and sulfide sulfur; organic is defined as the difference between the amount of total sulfur in coal and the sum of sulfate and sulfide sulfur.

Sulfur pyrite is an almost constant companion of coal and, moreover, sometimes in such quantity that it makes it unfit for consumption (for example, coal from the Moscow basin).

According to these data, it turns out that the accumulation of organic matter (wood or peat) is not related to coal. The formation of brown coal is an abiogenic process. But what? Why are brown coals located relatively shallow, while coal can be located at depths of up to two kilometers?

The next question is: where are all the fossils of flora and fauna in brown coal seams. They must be massive! Trunks, plants, skeletons and bones of dead animals - where are they?

Leave imprints are found only in overburden rocks:

Petrified fern. Such petrified plants come across during coal mining. This specimen was mined while working at the Rodinskaya mine in the Donbass. But we will return to these alleged fossils below.

This refers to the waste rock of coal mines. I didn't find anything on brown coal.

Areas of coal formation. Most of the coal is found in the northern hemisphere, absent from the equator and the tropics. But there is the most acceptable climate for the accumulation of organic matter in antiquity. There are also no areas (in latitudinal form) of accumulation on the old equators. This distribution is clearly related to another reason.

One more question. Why was this useful fossil fuel not used in antiquity? There are no mass descriptions of the extraction and use of brown coal. The first mention of coal refers only to the time of Peter I. It is not at all difficult to get (get to the bottom of the seam). This is done in an artisanal way by local residents in Ukraine:

There are also more large-scale open pit coal mining:

Coal under 8-10 meters of clay. For the formation of coal, geologists say you need a lot of pressure and temperature. It was clearly not here.

Coal is soft and crumbles.

When digging wells, they had to stumble upon the layers and find out that they were burning. But history tells us about the beginning of mass coal mining only in the 19th century.

Or maybe these layers did not exist until the 19th century? As it was not in the middle of the 19th century. trees! See the desert landscapes of the Crimea and photographs of Stolypin settlers who climbed into the remote corners of Siberia in wagon trains. And now there is an impenetrable taiga. This is me about the 19th century version of the flood. Its mechanism is not clear (if it did exist). But back to brown coals.

What breed do you think it is? Brown coal? Looks like it, but guess not. These are bituminous sands.

Large-scale oil production from tar sands in Canada. Before the fall in oil prices, it was a cost-effective, even profitable business. On average, out of four tons of bitumen, only one barrel of oil is produced.

If you do not know, then you will not think that oil is being produced here. It looks like a brown cut.

Another example from Ukraine:

In the village of Starunya (Ivano-Frankivsk region), oil comes to the surface by itself, creating small volcanoes. Some oil volcanoes are on fire!

Then it will all petrify and there will be a coal seam.

So what am I getting at? To the fact that oil during the cataclysm, the break of the earth came out, spilled. But not petrified in the sands. And brown coal, perhaps, is the same, but in Cretaceous or other deposits. There, the fraction before oil was less than sand. The stony state of the coals says that it is involved in the chalk layers. Perhaps some reactions took place and the layers turned into stone.

Even Wikipedia says:
Fossil coal is a mineral, a type of fuel, formed both from parts of ancient plants, and to a large extent from bituminous masses that poured onto the surface of the planet, metamorphosed due to sinking to great depths underground at high temperatures and without oxygen.
But the version of the abiogenic origin of brown coal from oil spills is not developed anywhere else.

Some write that this version does not explain the many layers of brown coal. If we take into account that not only masses of oil, but also water-mud sources came to the surface, then alternation is quite possible. Oil and bitumen are lighter than water - they floated on the surface and were deposited and adsorbed on the rock in the form of thin layers. Here is an example in a seismically active zone in Japan:

Water comes out of cracks. Of course, it is not deep, but what prevents the waters of artesian springs or underground oceans from coming out during larger processes and throwing masses of rocks milled into clay, sand, lime, salt, etc. to the surface when they come out. Set aside strata in a short period, not millions of years. I am more and more inclined that in some places at certain times the flood could be caused not by the passage of a wave from the ocean, but by the release of water and mud masses from the bowels of the Earth.

Sources:
http://sibved.livejournal.com/200768.html
https://new.vk.com/feed?w=wall178628732_2011
http://forum.gp.dn.ua/viewtopic.php?f=33&t=2210
http://chispa1707.livejournal.com/1698628.html

A separate issue is the formation of coal

Commentary in one of the articles from jonny3747 :
Coal in the Donbass is most likely the displacement of plates one under the other, along with all the forests, ferns, etc. He himself worked at depths of more than 1 km. The layers lie at an angle, as if one plate crawled under another. Between the layer of coal and the rock, there are very often imprints of plants, quite a lot caught my eye. And what is interesting between solid rock and coal there is a thin layer, as it were, not of rock but still not of coal, crumbles in the hands, unlike the rock, it has a dark color and it was in it that there were often prints.

This observation fits very well with the process of pyrographite growth in these layers. Most likely, the author saw such:

Remembering the fern fossils in the photos above

Here are excerpts from the monograph "Unknown Hydrogen" and the work "History of the Earth without the Carboniferous Period":

Based on their own research and a number of works of other scientists, the authors state:
“Given the recognized role of deep gases, ... the genetic relationship of natural carbonaceous substances with juvenile hydrogen-methane fluid can be described as follows.
1. From the gas-phase system C-O-H (methane, hydrogen, carbon dioxide) ... carbonaceous substances can be synthesized - both in artificial conditions and in nature ...
5. Pyrolysis of methane diluted with carbon dioxide under artificial conditions leads to the synthesis of liquid ... hydrocarbons, and in nature - to the formation of the entire genetic series of bituminous substances.

CH4 → Sgraphite + 2H2

In the process of methane decomposition in depth, the formation of complex hydrocarbons occurs in a completely natural way! It happens because it turns out to be energetically favorable! And not only gaseous or liquid hydrocarbons, but also solid ones!
Methane and now constantly "oozes" in places of extraction of coal. It may be residual. Or it may be evidence of the continuation of the process of hydrocarbon vapors coming from the bowels.

Well, now it's time to deal with the "trump card" of the version of the organic origin of brown and hard coal - the presence of "carbonized plant residues" in them.
Such "carbonized plant residues" are found in coal deposits in huge quantities. Paleobotanists "confidently identify plant species" in these "remains".
It was on the basis of the abundance of these "remnants" that the conclusion was made about almost tropical conditions in the vast regions of our planet and the conclusion about the violent flowering of the plant world in the Carboniferous period.
But! When pyrolytic graphite was obtained by pyrolysis of methane diluted with hydrogen, it was found that, away from the gas flow, dendritic forms are formed in stagnant zones, very similar to "plant residues".

Samples of pyrolytic graphite with "plant patterns" (from the monograph "Unknown Hydrogen")

The simplest conclusion that follows from the above photographs of "carbonized plant forms", which in fact are only forms of pyrolytic graphite, will be this: paleobotanists now need to think hard! ..

And the scientific world continues to write dissertations on the origin of coals based on the biological accumulation of layers

1. Hydride compounds in the bowels of our planet decompose when heated (see the author’s article “Does the fate of Phaeton await the Earth? ..”), releasing hydrogen, which, in full accordance with the law of Archimedes, rushes up - to the surface of the Earth.
2. On its way, due to its high chemical activity, hydrogen interacts with the substance of the interior, forming various compounds. Including such gaseous substances as methane CH4, hydrogen sulfide H2S, ammonia NH3, water vapor H2O and the like.
3. Under conditions of high temperatures and in the presence of other gases that are part of the fluids of the subsoil, a stepwise decomposition of methane occurs, which, in full accordance with the laws of physical chemistry, leads to the formation of gaseous hydrocarbons, including complex ones.
4. Rising both along the existing cracks and faults in the earth's crust, and forming new ones under pressure, these hydrocarbons fill all the cavities available to them in geological rocks. And due to contact with these colder rocks, gaseous hydrocarbons pass into a different phase state and (depending on the composition and environmental conditions) form deposits of liquid and solid minerals - oil, brown and coal, anthracite, graphite and even diamonds.
5. In the process of the formation of solid deposits, in accordance with the laws of self-organization of matter that are far from being studied, under appropriate conditions, the formation of ordered forms occurs, including those reminiscent of the forms of the living world.

And another very curious detail: before the "Carboniferous period" - at the end of Devon - the climate is rather cool and arid, and after - at the beginning of Perm - the climate is also cool and arid. Before the "Carboniferous period" we have a "red continent", and after we have the same "red continent" ...
The following logical question arises: was there a warm "Carboniferous period" at all ?!.

Not a million-year age of the Carboniferous and brown coal seams explains a number of strange artifacts found in coals:

Iron mug found in coal 300 million years old.

Toothed rack in hard coal

“The bowels of the Earth are hidden in themselves: blue lapis lazuli, green malachite, pink rhodonite, lilac charoite ... In the colorful range of these and many other minerals, fossil coal looks, of course, modest.”
So writes Edward Martin in his work "The History of a Piece of Coal", and one cannot but agree with him. But given the benefits that coal has brought to people since time immemorial, you look at this statement with a completely different look.

Coal is a mineral that people use as fuel. It is a dense stony black (sometimes gray-black) color with a shiny, semi-matte or matte surface.
There are two main points of view on the origin of coal. The first argues that coal was created by the decay of plants over many millions of years. But this process did not always lead to deposits of coal. The fact is that the access of oxygen must be limited so that rotting plants cannot release carbon into the atmosphere. A suitable environment for this process is a swamp. Stagnant water with a minimum oxygen content does not allow bacteria to completely destroy plants. And at a certain point, acids are released that completely stop the work of bacteria. Thus, peat is formed, which is transformed first into brown coal, then into hard coal, and finally into anthracite. But the formation of coal is due to another important point - due to the movement of the earth's crust, the peat layer must be covered with other layers of soil. Thus, under pressure, elevated temperatures, remaining without water and gases, coal is formed.

There is also a second version. It suggests that coal is the result of the transition of carbon from a gaseous state to a crystalline one. It is based on the fact that a large amount of carbon in the gaseous state can be contained in the bowels of the Earth. During the cooling process, it precipitates in the form of coal.

Russia holds 5.5% of the world's coal reserves, at this stage it is 6421 billion tons, of which 2/3 are hard coal reserves. The deposits are unevenly distributed across the country: 95% are located in the eastern regions, and more than 60% of them belong to Siberia. The main coal basins: Kuznetsk, Kansk-Achinsk, Pechora, Donetsk. In terms of coal production, Russia ranks 5th in the world.

Protozoa fossil coal mining known since ancient times and recorded in China and Greece. In Russia, for the first time, Peter I saw coal in 1696 in the area of ​​​​the present city of Shakhty. And since 1722, expeditions began to be equipped with the aim of reconnaissance of coal deposits across the territory of Russia. At this time, coal began to be used in salt production, in blacksmithing and for heating houses.
There are two main ways of extracting hard coal: open and closed. The method of extraction depends on the depth of the rock. If the deposits are located at a depth of up to 100 meters, then the mining method is open (the top layer of soil is removed above the deposit, that is, a quarry or section is formed). If the depth is greater, then mines are created, and special underground passages are created in them. By the way, coal is usually formed at a depth of 3 or more kilometers. But as a result of the movements of the earth layers, the layers are raised closer to the surface or lowered to a lower level. Coal occurs in the form of seams and lenticular deposits. The structure is layered or granular. And the average thickness of the coal seam is about 2 meters.

Coal is not just a mineral, but is a collection of high-molecular compounds with a high carbon content, as well as water and volatile substances with a small amount of mineral impurities.

Specific heat of combustion (calorie content) - 6500 - 8600 kcal / kg.

The figures are given as a percentage, the exact composition depends on the location of the deposits and climatic conditions. To understand the quality of coal determine several important points. Firstly, the degree of its working humidity (less moisture - better energy properties). Its content in coal is 4-14%, which gives a calorific value of 10-30 MJ/kg. Secondly, it is the ash content of coal. Ash is formed due to the presence of mineral impurities in coal and is determined by the output of the residue after combustion at a temperature of 800°C. Coal is considered suitable for use if after combustion the ash is 30% or less.
Unlike brown coal, coal does not contain humic acids; in it they are converted into carboids (compacted carbon compounds). Accordingly, its density and carbon content is greater than that of brown coal.

Speaking about the properties, the following types of coal are distinguished: shiny (vitren), semi-shiny (claren), matte (dgoren) and wavy (fusen).

According to the degree of enrichment, coals are divided into concentrates, intermediate products and sludge. The concentrates are used in the boiler house and for generating electricity. Industrial products go to the needs of metallurgy. The sludge is suitable for making briquettes and selling retail to the public.

There is also a classification of coal according to the size of the pieces:

Coal classification	Designation	Size
slab	P	over 100 mm
Large	TO	50..100 mm
Nut	ABOUT	25..50 mm
Small	M	13..25 mm
polka dots	G	5..25 mm
seed	FROM	6..13 mm
Shtyb	W	less than 6 mm
Private	R	not limited in size

The main technological properties of coal are caking and coking properties. Caking is the ability of coal to form a fused residue when heated (without air). Coal acquires this property at the stages of its formation. Coking is the ability of coal under certain conditions and high temperature to form a lumpy porous material - coke. This property gives coal additional value.
During the formation of coal, changes occur regarding the content of carbon in it and a decrease in the amount of oxygen, hydrogen and volatile substances, as well as changes in the heat of combustion. From this comes the classification of coal grades:

Classification of coal by grade:	Designation
	D
	G
	GJ
The area of ​​application of coal is very extensive, while at the beginning of mining in Russia it was used mainly for heating houses and in blacksmithing. At the moment, there are many areas that use hard coal. For example, the metallurgical industry. Here, for the smelting of metal, a high temperature is needed, and, consequently, such a type of coal as coke. The chemical industry uses hard coal for coking and further production of coke oven gas, from which hydrocarbons are obtained. In the process of processing hydrocarbons, it receives toluene, benzene, and other substances, thanks to which linoleum, varnishes, paints, etc. are produced. Coal is also used as a heat source. Both for the population and for energy production at thermal power plants. Also, a certain amount of soot is formed from coal during heating (high-quality soot is obtained from gas and fat coals), from which rubber, printing inks, ink, plastic, etc. are produced. Thus, returning to the statement of Edward Martin, we can safely say, that the modest appearance of coal does not in the least detract from its properties and useful qualities.