The figurative meaning of words is especially common in artistic and colloquial styles. There are such types of figurative meanings: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.

Metaphor(from Greek. metaphora- transfer) is a type of figurative use of a word based on the similarity of certain features. Most often, metaphorical transfer of signs, properties of objects to creatures and vice versa occurs, for example: And the earth, and water, and air - all fell asleep.

Metaphor can be built on:

1) similarities Fort: Pomereziv evening curly icy window costs(M. Dry-Khmara)

2) color similarities: The sun was already sinking towards the west and flooded the snowy valleys with a bloody sheen.(I. Franko)

3) Property Similarities: It is known what kind of person from Nevkipylogo is flint (A. Golovko)

4) similarities in the manifestation of feelings: Thoughts, memories tormented the heart of Kostomarov(M. Ivchenko)

5) similarities in behavior, mode of action Fatigue creeps quietly, but he does not let fatigue take him(V. Bychko).

A metaphor can also be based on impressions and evaluation of what: Cherry smell of thoughts(M. Dry-Khmara).

On the basis of metaphorization in artistic speech, language images are created: thunder of applause, a star of hope.

Metonymy(from Greek. metonymia- renaming) is the transfer of a name from one class of objects or the name of one object to another, bordering, are in organic connection with each other.

Can be transferred:

1) the name of the room - for the people in it: The Institute celebrates its centenary(P. Voronko)

2) the name of the material - for a product from it: The whole table is filled with silver(i.e. silverware)

3) the name of the action - on the result: stop(the action itself and the place where they stop)

4) the subject is being studied - on the branch of science: anatomy and physiology;

5) the name of the event - for its participants: The conference adopted the appeal;

6) the name of the emotional state - on its cause: Horror!;

8) the name of the object - for the preparation: head pills;

9) the name of the item - to what it contains: - Here, drink a glass, freshen up;

10) the name of the features, properties - on its carrier: The folk bass himself, who was sitting in front, also ran onto the stage, kept up a little ...(Yu. Yanovsky).

Synecdoche(from Greek. Snekdoche- spivpereimannya) is a type of transfer of the name of a part to the name of the whole and vice versa. For example: Greenjolami silently passed the casing(M. Dry-Khmara).

Like metonymy, synecdoche is based on the concept of contiguity, but what is specific to it is that this contiguity of a quantitative nature is more general and specific from the name: He has a hand everywhere, and what are we?(I. Karpenko-Kary). Synecdoche is used as a language art tool, but not as often as metaphor and metonymy.

Homonyms. paronyms

Homonyms(from Greek. Homos- the same and GUT name) are words that sound the same but have different meanings.

There are lexical homonyms absolute (or complete) and incomplete. Full homonyms are within the same part of speech. The sound composition of absolute (full) homonyms is the same in all grammatical forms. For example: corncrake - with a migratory bird and landrail- erased broom.

Incomplete homonyms are words that do not match in sound in all grammatical forms. Incomplete lexical homonyms are called homoforms. For example: some(names) - Little fish and some(numeral) - Indefinite number of items; sons(names) - Genitive plural noun son and sons(ch.) - Past tense masculine form of the verb turn blue.

homographs- this is the spelling type of homonyms, - words that are the same in spelling, but different in sound (have different stress) and meaning. For example: water - genitive singular noun water and water- nominative case of a noun, used only in the plural; antimony - wind musical instrument and antimony- silvery-white brittle metal.

Homophones- words that have the same sound composition, but different in meaning and spelling. For example: sleep it(I'm dreaming) and sun(shines).

Attention! Distinguish homonyms from polysemantic words. There are connections between the meanings of a polysemantic word, they are united by a common concept, similar to a feature or a similar function. For example: pen(child) - pen(for writing) - pen(doors) root(oak) - root(tooth) - root(the words). When individual meanings are already removed from the main content of the word and lose contact with it, then these are homonyms. For example: You are welcome(caresses) and please(animal), right(side) and right(not guilty).

Paronyms- words that are close enough in sound composition and sound, but different in meaning. For example: bleach and turn white; strong and (purple, Often they have one root, and differ only in a suffix, prefix or ending. Little difference in pronunciation leads to mistakes. Therefore, watch out for the use of unfamiliar words, clarify their meanings in an explanatory dictionary.

Metonymy is the transfer of a name by adjacency, as well as the figurative meaning itself, which arose due to such a transfer. Unlike the transfer of the metaphorical, which necessarily implies the similarity of objects, actions, properties, metonymy is based on the juxtaposition, contiguity of objects, concepts, actions that are not similar to each other. For example, such different "objects" as an industrial enterprise and the workers of this enterprise can be called the same word plant (cf.: "a new plant is being built" and "the plant has fulfilled the plan"); in one word we call the country, the state and the government of the country, the state (cf .: "the people of France" and "France has concluded a treaty"), etc.

Depending on what kind of contiguity objects (concepts), actions are connected with, they distinguish between spatial, temporal and logical metonymy *.

1) Spatial metonymy is based on the spatial, physical arrangement of objects, phenomena. The most common case of spatial metonymy is the transfer of the name of a room (part of a room), institution, etc. on people living, working, etc. in this room, in this enterprise. Compare, for example, "multi-storey building", "spacious hut", "huge workshop", "cramped editorial office", "student dormitory", etc., where the words house, hut, workshop, editorial office, hostel are used in their direct meaning for naming premises, enterprises, and "the whole house went out for a subbotnik", "huts were sleeping", "the workshop joined the competition", "the whole edition was "for", "the hostel fell into a dream", where the same words, naming people, act in a metonymic sense. Spatial metonymy is also an example of transferring the name of a vessel, a container to its contents. Thus, when we say "the kettle is already boiling", "the samovar is bubbling", "the frying pan is hissing", we mean, of course, not a kettle, a samovar , a pan, and what is poured into a teapot, a samovar, which is fried (stewed) in a pan.

2) With temporal metonymy, objects, phenomena are adjacent, "touch" in the time of their existence, "appearance". Such metonymy is the transfer of the name of the action (expressed by the noun) to the result - to what occurs in the process of action. For example: "publishing a book" (action) - "luxury, gift edition" (result of action); "it was difficult for the artist to depict details" (action) - "images of animals are carved on the rock" (i.e. drawings, which means the result of the action); Similar metonymic figurative meanings, which appeared on the basis of temporal adjacency, also have the words embroidery ("dress with embroidery"), set ("to have a set of tools"), cutting ("cutting was erased"), translation ("deliver the translation on time"), correspondence ("to include the writer's correspondence in the publication"), polishing ("polishing is scratched"), editing ("the text of the last edition of the story"), carving ("decorate with carvings"), chasing ("collecting Georgian coinage"), sewing ("Old Russian sewing ") and many others.

3) Logical metonymy is also very common. Logical metonymy includes:

a) transfer of the name of the vessel, capacity to the volume of what is contained in the vessel, capacity. Wed “break a cup, plate, glass, jug”, “lose a spoon”, “smoke a pot”, “tie a bag”, etc., where the words cup, plate, glass, jug, spoon, pan, bag are used in the direct meaning as the names of the container, and "try a spoonful of jam", "drink two cups (tea)", "eat a whole plate of porridge (pot of soup)", "use a bag of potatoes", etc., where the same words have a figurative metonymic meaning , naming the volume, quantity of the corresponding substance, content;

b) transferring the name of a substance, material to a product from it: "porcelain exhibition", "won gold, bronze" (i.e. gold, bronze medals), "collect ceramics", "transfer the necessary papers" (i.e. documents ), "break glass", "paint watercolors", "levitan's canvas" ("Surikov's canvas"), "walk in capron, in furs", etc.;

d) transferring the name of the action to the substance (object) or to the people with the help of which this action is carried out. For example: putty, impregnation (a substance that putty, impregnation of something), suspension, clamp (a device for hanging, clamping something), defense, attack, change (a group of people performing an action - protection, attack, change) etc.;

e) transferring the name of the action to the place where it occurs. For example: entrance, exit, detour, stop, transition, turn, passage, crossing (place of entry, exit, detour, stop, transition, turn, passage, crossing, i.e. the place where these actions are performed);

f) transferring the name of a property, quality to something or what or who discovers that it has this property, quality. Compare: "tactlessness, rudeness of words", "stupidity of a person", "mediocrity of the project", "tactlessness of behavior", "caustic remarks", "banality of remarks", etc. (highlighted words denote an abstract property, quality) and "to commit tactlessness" (tactless act), "to speak rudeness, stupidity" (rude, stupid words, phrases), "he is surrounded by mediocrity" (mediocre people), "to allow tactlessness" (tactless an act or a tactless remark), "allow yourself to be taunts" (biting words, remarks), "pronounce platitudes" (banal words, phrases), "they are all talents, they are all poets" (B. Ok.);

g) transferring the name of a geographical point, area to what is produced in them, cf. tsinandali, saperavi, havana, gzhel, etc.

The adjacency of objects, concepts can also cause the transfer of the name of a feature expressed by an adjective. Thus, many qualitative adjectives, in addition to the direct meaning "possessing some kind of quality", referring directly to a living being (cf. "stupid person", "treacherous enemy", "brave rider", "smart woman", etc.), They also have figurative, metonymic meanings. An illustration of the use of an adjective in a metonymic sense can be, for example, a combination such as "stupid physiognomy" (i.e., the physiognomy of a stupid person). The adjacency of the objects "man" and "physiognomy" served as the basis for the transfer of the attribute stupid from a person to a physiognomy, as if as a result of the reduction of the combination: "the physiognomy of a stupid person" - "a stupid physiognomy". Examples of metonymic use can also be given for other qualitative adjectives: "insidious smile" (smile of an insidious person), "bold answer, act" (answer, act of a brave person), "smart advice" (advice of an intelligent person), etc. Similarly, i.e. due to the transfer of the definition based on the adjacency of objects, metonymic meanings appeared for the adjectives azure - "azure morning" (i.e. morning with a clear azure sky) *, crazy - "mad house" (i.e. a house for crazy people) ** etc.

The metonymic meaning of adjectives can also appear in another way, not by transferring the definition.

Consider adjectives in such combinations as "spring holidays" (holidays that happen in the spring), "travel suit" (a suit designed for the road); "hibernation" (hibernation that one falls into in winter), "sad meeting" * (meeting that causes sadness). It cannot be said about these adjectives that in the given combinations they are a definition transferred from one adjacent subject to another, since it is quite obvious that such combinations are not an abbreviation of the combinations "spring days holidays", "travel time suit", "winter hibernation" , "meeting sad people" or the like. (Such combinations do not really exist). Therefore, about the adjectives spring, road, winter, as well as many others (cf. acorn in the combination "acorn coffee", golden in "golden glasses", "golden ring", etc.) we can say that these adjectives in a metonymic sense arose, as it were, anew, secondarily (secondarily in comparison with the same adjectives in their direct meanings) from that noun that names one of the adjacent objects, from which the direct meaning was formed in due time. Wed: "spring holidays" - holidays that take place in the spring (detention highlights related objects, concepts), "travel suit" (a suit designed for the road), "acorn coffee" (coffee made from acorns), etc.

Finally, there is another rather peculiar type of formation of the figurative, metonymic meaning of adjectives (qualitative). Let's look at the example again first. M. Zoshchenko has. story "Weak container". Weak in this name is not "made by weak hands or a weak person", weak here is "one that is loosely tightened, fastened, etc." That is, the adjective weak turns out to be connected not with a noun, but with an adverb ("weakly"). And if we talk about adjacency, then it is found between concepts, one of which is expressed by a noun (in the example given, it is "container"), the other - by a verb or participle (in our example, it is "tight", "fastened").

In a similar way, such combinations, characteristic of the language of a modern newspaper, were formed, such as "fast water", "fast track", "fast track", "fast routes" (where fast is "one that you can quickly swim, run, drive"), "quick seconds" (fast here - "one that shows a fast running, swimming, etc. athlete"). And in these cases, the contiguity of the concepts expressed by the noun ("water", "path", "second", etc.), on the one hand, and the verb or participle, on the other ("swim", "run", " shows", etc.), and the adjective quick in the metonymic sense is clearly connected by its formation with the adverb

The metonymic transfer of the name is also characteristic of verbs. It can be based on the adjacency of items (as in the previous two cases). Compare: "knock out the carpet" (the carpet absorbs the dust, which is knocked out), "pour out the statue" (they pour out the metal from which the statue is made); other examples: "boil laundry", "forge a sword (nails)", "string a necklace" (from beads, shells, etc.), "cover a snowdrift", etc. Metonymic meaning can also arise due to the adjacency of actions. For example: "the store opens (=trade begins) at 8 o'clock" (the opening of the doors serves as a signal for the start of the store).

Like metaphors, metonymies vary in their degree of prevalence and expressiveness. From this point of view, among metonymies, general language inexpressive, general poetic (general literary) expressive, general newspaper expressive (as a rule) and individual (author's) expressive ones can be distinguished.

Common language metonymies are casting, silver, porcelain, crystal (in the meaning of "products"), work (what is done), putty, impregnation (substance), protection, attack, plant, factory, change (when people are called these words), entrance, exit, crossing, crossing, turning, etc. (in the meaning of the place of action), fox, mink, hare, squirrel, etc. (as a feature, products) and much more*. Like general language metaphors, metonyms are in themselves absolutely inexpressive, sometimes they are not perceived as figurative meanings.

General poetic (general literary) expressive metonymy is azure (about a cloudless blue sky): "The last cloud of a scattered storm! You alone rush through clear azure" (P.); "Under the peaceful azure, on a light hill stands and grows alone" (Tyutch.); transparent: "It was a sunny, transparent and cold day" (Cupr.); "The valleys turned blue in the transparent cold" (Ec.); lead: "A slave of merciless honor, he saw his end close by. In duels, hard, cold, / Meeting fatal lead" (P.); "From whose hand is the deadly lead / Tore the poet's heart to pieces ..?" (Tyutch.); blue: "Let sometimes the blue evening whisper to me that you were a song and a dream" (Ec.); "Crowds of beggars - and they were crushed on such a blue day on the porch to the sound of bells" (A.N.T.); youth: "Let youth grow cheerfully, carelessly and happily, let it have one concern: to study and develop creative forces in itself" (A.N.T.); “Before him sat youth, a little rude, straightforward, somehow offensively simple” (I. and P.) *, etc.

General newspaper metonymies include such words as white (cf. "white strada", "white Olympics"), fast ("fast track", "fast water", "quick seconds", etc.), green ("green patrol ", "green harvest"), gold (cf. "golden jump", "golden flight", "golden blade", where gold is "one that is rated with a gold medal", or "one with which a gold medal is won" ) etc.

Examples of individual (author's) metonyms: "Only the troika rushes with a ringing in snow-white oblivion" (Bl.); "I'll put you to sleep with a quiet fairy tale, I'll tell you a sleepy fairy tale" (Bl.); "And in diamond dreams, even the deceased mother-in-law seemed to him nicer" (I. and P.); "In the midst of the green silence of the surging summer, not all questions are resolved. Not all are answered" (Ac.); "From the cool wooden cleanliness of the house we reluctantly went out into the street" (V.Sol.); "After all, you can't take their menu in your mouth" (Ginryary); “And a strange stalk that is up to the shoulders in a tubular blade of grass ... extract with a silk whistle” (Matt.); "Our keys made our neighbors angry" (B.Akhm.); "The twenty-fifth leaves for battle. The twenty-sixth stepped into the fire. My seventh froze at the edge" (N. Pozd.) (about conscripts born in 1925,1926 and 1927); "It was a pleasure to dashingly and accurately draw up a sophisticated document, to answer, for example, to some star excellency" (V. Savch.).

The transfer of the name from one object to another is explained either by the similarity or connection of these objects. The following types of transfer of the meaning of words are distinguished: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche (as a special type of metonymic transfer), expansion or narrowing of the meaning. Metaphor- transfer based on the similarity between objects: #)mz forms "" 1 (neck bottles, eye of a needle, bow of a boat), b) twpmwepy (horse dose, pole = lanky man), c) p @ "color © 1y (golden curls, earthy face)shtttttmu wttttt ram = stubborn stupid

man, bitter smile, pure thoughts), 5) shkzdishyashema-function (pen - originally from a bird, then - metal; wipers - in a car).

Metonymy- renaming objects based on their relationship in space or time. Types of metonymic transfer: a^lyatyayamyatshv (drink a whole glass = the liquid in it; attentive audience = listeners)Shttshield ^ yshlt exhibition of bronze = objects from it; buy wool on a dress = woolen cloth), Shch-shtshvt, f-ftutyugt (jam = sweet jam made from fruits or berries; submit a written translation),¥$SHSH №№к>tschyashtsh ® "d shschzshshshshshtayatt (jaundice, blush to be ashamed, tremble = be afraid), d-uchyugerg ^.izv- &rett& (cambric, guillotine, raglan, x-ray, revolver, olivier),fttzhsh-F SHCHSH ( boston = fabric, panama, tokaj = a type of wine named after a province in Hungary).

Synecdoche - link-based transfer: shetkLlryee (A lone sail turns white, a detachment of a hundred sabers).

Metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche are called tropes - a stylistic device based on the use of a word in a figurative sense to achieve greater artistic expressiveness.

The consequence of the figurative, figurative use of the word is extension^ its meaning (paint -^1)_make beautiful, decorate-^ make red -> change color, color) or his ^ narrowing) (beer is a drink in general - ^ a drink made from barley malt with a small amount of alcohol) as well as development of the abstract values ("understand" meant "take, catch"). \ . .

Question 32

Words in a language are not in a disorderly, chaotic state; they can be grouped based on different principles. The largest groupings of words by semantic principle are lexico-semantic fields. They are structured in a certain way: it has a center, a core, near and far peripheries. They consist of lexical units related to different parts of speech (verbs, nouns, adjectives), phrase combinations. But they all have some general semantic component, on the basis of which they are included in the given lexico-semantic field. For example, LSP "EM0TsSh",.yTsr0S1ranstV0>>" yFlowers.p. Smaller associations - lexico-semantic groups- include lexical units related to one part of speech, but also having a common component (for example, 9 LSG "Verbs movement "u,. x" w). If taken into account functional principle (i.e., by role in a combination or sentence), then the field can be lexico-functional. Grouping words by similaritytshtsh gives us ©Chishnimiya^skie ranks. Synonyms are words that are different in sound, but close in meaning, which can be used one instead of the other. There are three main types of synonyms.

1) Logical, or absolute synonyms - express the same concept (airplane - plane, crocodile - alligator, linguistics - linguistics). There are not very many of them, otherwise the language would be too overloaded with redundant vocabulary.

2) Semantic synonyms - close in meaning, but different in sound (blizzard - blizzard - snowstorm - blizzard, elderly - old).

3) Contextual, go speech - words and expressions that can be used one instead of the other only in a certain context (rotosey - hat - crow, coward - hare). Synonyms allow us to convey the subtlest shades of our thoughts and feelings. As a rule, they are used in different styles of speech: look (neutral), contemplate (poetic),) hatch-drink (colloquial). Some of them are more frequently used, others less. Sources of synonymy can serve: I;) dialect, professional and slang words (house - hut (northern) - hut (southern), speed - tempo (music), fake - linden (thieves' jargon), 2) borrowings and tracing papers (alphabet - alphabet, abstract - abstract), 3) taboo - a ban on the use of certain words associated with religious or mystical ideas (brownie - the owner, did not use names "devil" and "devil" in order not to call out, instead of a name they gave a nickname or two names of the godfather - secret and explicit), 4) euphemisms - words associated with the socially accepted ban on the use of rude and obscene words (pregnant - in position, crazy - not in himself).

The grouping of lexical units based on the opposition of their meanings gives us antonymic pairs. Antonyms are words that sound different but have opposite meanings. They form pairs of words that are polar in meaning, which coincide in terms of use and are used in opposition within the same utterance (Komissarov). There are only words in the content of which there are qualitative signs. For example, adjectives: old - young, healthy - sick, nouns: friend is enemy, night is day, truth is a lie. They can be formed from single-root words with the help of prefixes opposite in meaning or a negative particle-prefix non-: enter - exit, surface - underwater, deep - shallow (shallow), friend - foe.

Polysemantic words have several synonyms: a quiet voice - a loud voice, a quiet sadness - a deep sadness, a quiet ride - a fast ride, a quiet street - a noisy street, a quiet person - a violent person.

Linguistic antonyms are opposed by speech, contextual (human blood is not water).Question 33 Homonyms. Paronyms.

The problem of homonymy is closely related to the problem of polysemy, but it is sometimes very difficult to distinguish one from the other. Prof. Akhmanova suggested taking into account the relationship between the word and objective reality. If each of the meanings exists on its own, regardless of each other, then they are independent names of different objects of the surrounding world and belong to homonymous words. If one of the meanings acts as a derivative in relation to the other, the identity of the word is not violated, then we are dealing with different meanings of the same polysemantic word.

The semantic independence of homonyms is supported morphologically and syntactically. So, many homonyms belong to different derivational nests (marriage - marriage - marriage - out of wedlock ...; marriage - defective - scammer - to reject). They also differ in syntactic properties. (leaving (= removal) from home - care (^care) for the sick. The sources of homonymy are: 1) disintegration (splitting) of synonymy (shop (= bench) and shop (= small shop); 2) word formation (buy from "buy" - buy from "buy"); 3) historical change in the sound image of different words (lynx (beast) from "ryds" = blush, red iris (horse running) from "rist"); 5) borrowing (club (smoke) and English syb). There are several rtshshshshshshmshya®* 0 ^

a| MSHSHNSCH YY m i™ proper homonyms- different, in meaning, but coinciding in spelling and pronunciation in all forms (key - from the door, spring, violin, answer);

b) homophones, or phonetic homonyms- different in meaning, spelling ^ but matching in sound (ball - score, burn - burn, English /Iower(flower) -flour(flour); v- "-■ - \ - ? ;<Р< "1 "

in) homographs, or spelling homonyms- different in meaning, sound, but the same spelling (dtpas - atlas, expensive - expensive);^^g-t^ut G^ ng- \I i -> i

G) homoforms, or morphological homonyms- coinciding in sound, spelling in one or more grammatical forms (my (- command adv. to the verb “wash”) - mine (= belonging to me.

Adjacent to homonyms paronyms- words similar in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, which are mistakenly used one instead of the other (subscriber (- subscriber) - subscription (= right to use something for a period of time), parliamentarian (= member of parliament) - parliamentarian (= negotiator), hidden (= secret) - secretive (= taciturn).

Question34. Phraseology. Goalj (\ , . (("(/ i If /. with; (Cl;". )

Stable combinations of words that are close or equal in meaning to one word are called phrases. Being ready-made stamps, they are not newly created, but only reproduced in speech situations. Act as one member in the proposal (beat the buckets = mess around (predicate), slipshod = carelessly (circumstance), elephant in a china shop = clumsy person) ((subject, object), raven's wing = black (definition). Some of them turned into frozen sentences: Here is the sky, grandmother, and St. George's day! Hold your pocket wider! By degree with diYanio of components, there are three main types of phrase combinations (the classification was proposed by academician ^ ^ ^ NZinogradov): ^ ^ 1 phraseological combinations- semi-free combinations in which only one word is limited; but in use lower your gaze / gaze, eyes, bloody your nose / face);T^^U ^" M 4^2 phraseological units- stable combinations in which the value of the whole can be derived from the values ​​of its constituent members (to slaughter without a knife, take the bull by the horns, blood withlock, wash your hands); -,/-,

3 phrases biological adhesions, or idioms - maximum lexicalized turns of speech, in the meanings of which there is no connection with the meanings of their members (upside down, give a goose, get into a mess. The boundaries between the types of phrase combinations are mobile: with an increase in lexicalization, the combination more and more turns into an idiom.

Phraseology - 1) a section of linguistics that studies the phraseological composition of a language in its current state and historical development, 2) a set of phraseological units of a given language. ■Phraseology of any language is distinguished by a pronounced national specificity. Sometimes you can find similar phraseological units (There isonsmoke without fire. - There is no smoke without fire. But more often than not, a literal translation is not possible. (You can" t make an omelet without breaking eggs. You can't even pull a fish out of a pond without labor.

Depending on which sign the meaning is transferred from one object to another, the following types of figurative meanings of the word are distinguished.

1) Transferring values ​​for some similarity between objects and events. Such transfers are called metaphorical. Metaphor(from the Greek Metaphora - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object, action, property, phenomenon to other actions, properties, phenomena based on the similarity of their features (for example, shape, color, function, location and etc.). Examples of metaphorical meanings:
a) onion head, eyeball - transfer based on the similarity of the shape of objects;
b) the bow of the boat, the tail of the train, the head of the nail - transfer based on the similarity of the arrangement of objects;
c) janitor (in the meaning of "a cleaning device on the glass of a car"), electrical position, watchman (in the meaning of "a device on a dish to hold boiling milk") - transfer based on the similarity of the functions of objects.

For many metaphorical figurative meanings of the word, it is characteristic anthropomorphism, that is, the likening of the properties of the surrounding physical world to the properties of a person. Compare such examples: an evil wind, indifferent nature, the breath of spring, “The River Plays” (the title of the story by V.G. Korolenko), the stream runs, the volcano woke up, etc.

On the other hand, some properties and phenomena of inanimate matter are transferred to the human world, for example: a cold look, an iron will, a heart of stone, a golden character, a shock of hair, a ball of thoughts, etc. There are metaphors general language when one or another metaphorical meaning of a word is used widely, as a result of which it is known to all speakers of a given language (nail head, river arm, black envy, iron will), and individual, created by a writer or poet, characterizing his stylistic manner and not becoming common. Compare, for example, metaphors:
S.A. Yesenin: red mountain ash bonfire, birch tongue of the grove, chintz of the sky, grains of eyes, etc.;
B.L. Pasternak: the labyrinth of the lyre, the bloody tears of September, the rolls of lanterns and the donuts of the roofs, etc.

2) Transferring the name from one subject to another based on adjacency these items. This transfer of values ​​is called metonymy(from Greek Metonymia - renaming). Metonymic transfers of meaning are often formed according to certain regular types:
a) material - a product from this material. For example, the words gold, crystal can denote products made from these materials (she has gold in her ears; there is solid crystal on the shelves);
b) a vessel - the contents of the vessel (I ate two plates, drank a cup);
c) the author - the works of this author (I read Pushkin, I know Nerkasov by heart);
d) action - the object of action (actions aimed at publishing a book, illustrated edition of a book as an object);
e) action - the result of an action (construction of a monument - a monumental structure);
f) action - a means or instrument of action (putty of cracks - fresh putty, gear attachment - ski mount, motion transmission - bicycle gear);
g) action - place of action (exit from the house - stand at the exit, traffic stop - bus stop);
h) animal - animal fur or meat (the hunter caught a fox - what kind of fur, arctic fox or fox?).

One of the peculiar types of metonymy is synecdoche. Synecdoche(from the Greek. Sinekdoche - ratio) - the ability of a word to name both a part of something and a whole. For example, the words face, mouth, head, hand denote the corresponding parts of the human body. But each of them can be used to name a person: unauthorized persons are not allowed to enter; in family five mouths; Kolya- light head.

The term "metonymy" comes from the Greek word meaning "rename". This is a trope, which is a transfer of meaning by adjacency - occasional or regular - to the name of a certain class of objects, or some separate of them to an object or another class associated with it by involvement in a particular situation or contiguity.

What names can be transferred

The basis of metonymy is spatial, conceptual, event, logical and syntagmatic relations between certain categories related to reality and its reflection in the human mind, fixed in the specific meanings of words - between persons, objects, actions, phenomena, processes, events, social institutions, time, place, etc.

The name can be transferred:

1) from the receptacle to the volume of the content or to the content itself, for example: "glass" - "measure of loose and liquid masses", "drinking vessel";

2) from the material to the products made from it: "copper" - "copper money" and "metal";

3) from a settlement, a place to an event connected with it or a set of inhabitants inhabiting it: "The whole village laughed at him", "road" - "trip", "path laid for movement", "time of trip";

3) from a certain action to its result, an object involved in the action (tool, object, subject) or a place: “stop” is both the place where the transport stops and a certain action, “whistle” is a device for whistling and the act of whistling itself;

5) from the form of expression of a certain content or its specific, material embodiment to the content as a whole: "interesting book" is related to the content, and "thick book" - to the subject;

6) the transfer of meaning by contiguity from science, a branch of knowledge to its subject and vice versa: "grammar" is both a "language structure" and a "section of linguistics";

7) from an event, a social event to its participants: "The conference will be held in June" and "The conference agreed on an important decision";

8) from the institution, social organization to the premises, the totality of its employees: "the factory went on strike" and "repair the factory";

9) from part to whole and vice versa: "pear" - "fruit" and "tree" (transferring a name from part to whole is called synecdoche - this is a special case of metonymy);

10) from a certain emotional state to the reason that caused it: "horror" - "terrible event" and "fear";

Regular metonymy

Metonymy, reflecting the interaction of concepts, categories and/or objects, becomes regular when it creates semantic models of derivational types and polysemantic words, often combining different types of meanings: event, indicative, subject (concrete and abstract). For example, action names are used regularly to denote some resulting object ("composition", "work", "story", "decision", "construction").

Suffix polysemy

If the metonymic transfer is regularly carried out within the word-formation type, its consequence may be the polysemy of the suffix, and not the stem (compare, for example, the meaning of such verbal suffixes as -enie, -anie). The association of some objects by adjacency, as well as by the logical proximity of concepts, turns into a connection of values. Metonymy of this kind serves certain purposes - nominative, and also contributes to the development of lexical linguistic means.

What gives rise to metonymy

This trope is generated by the mechanisms of various syntagmatic transformations. The metonymy that occurs regularly on the basis of a sentence or phrase, which is the result of the so-called elliptical contraction of the text, usually retains some degree of its limitation by the conditions of its use, without creating a contextually independent new meaning, for example: "There are two Van Goghs in the museum" (meaning "two but one cannot say: "On one Van Gogh a young woman is depicted."

Relationship with context

The strongest connection with the context is such metonymy (see examples in Russian below), in which the designation of a certain situation, based on some predicate, is reduced only to the component of the meaning of the object: "What's wrong with you?" - "Heart (head, teeth, throat) "- in the meaning of" the heart hurts (head, teeth, throat). This usage is limited to specific semantic and syntactic contexts. So, some figurative meaning (examples - "heart", "head") cannot be combined with procedural verbs and adjectives that determine the course of the disease and the nature of the pain. We cannot say "strong (aching, sharp) heart" or "heart aggravated (aggravated, intensified)". In this case, the transfer of meaning by adjacency does not create a context-independent semantic content of the word. It serves as a means of revealing the semantic variants of its use. The figurative meaning, examples of which were given above, is closely related to the context.

How metonymy is used

Metonymy is used (synecdoche most often) as a method of some situational nomination of an object according to its external individualizing detail. Let's illustrate our idea. Take such metonymic sentences as: "Hey, beard!", "The hat is reading the newspaper." This usage is analogous to its denoting derivatives - and nouns, cf. "beard" and "bearded", "bearded". This kind of metonymy (examples in Russian - Little Red Riding Hood, Dwarf Nose, etc.) often serves as a means of creating nicknames, nicknames.

Social group designation

If a detail called metonymy is typical for many individuals, then it can also take root in the language as a designation of a certain social group, for example, the word "bast shoe" can indicate the peasants of Russia in the pre-revolutionary period. But such metonymy lacks denotative (semantic) stability. In various historical contexts, the name "beard" was used to refer to wise men, peasants, boyars, elders, as well as a certain group of young people. in Russian, which we have just given, is very common.

Syntactic positions of metonymy

The use of this trope (synecdoche, first of all) mainly to designate the subject of speech combines it with the syntactic positions of the subject, address and additions. As a predicate, the situational transfer of meaning by adjacency is uncommon, since it does not perform any characterizing function. If metonymy is used in a predicate, it is transformed into a metaphor, for example, "hat" is a "blunder", "galosh" is "a ruin, a decrepit person". The use of names in the meaning of partivity in a predicate, which usually serves the purposes of aspecting the subject, is not considered in most cases as adjacency transfer. Let's illustrate our idea. Let's take this example: "He was a rebellious mind" - the characteristic refers to a specific aspect of the personality, more precisely - to his intellectual warehouse.

The synecdoche is also not used in any existential sentences or their equivalents that introduce the subject into the narrative world. For example, we cannot start the story with such words as: Once upon a time there was (one, some) little red riding hood. "This usage is perceived not as a designation of a person, but as the personification of an object.