The most flexible material in the world. The lightest material in the world. Black holes in the universe

Osmium is currently defined as the most heavy matter on the planet. Just one cubic centimeter of this substance weighs 22.6 grams. It was discovered in 1804 by the English chemist Smithson Tennant, when gold was dissolved in the After, a precipitate remained in the test tube. This happened due to the peculiarity of osmium, it is insoluble in alkalis and acids.

The heaviest element on the planet

It is a bluish-white metallic powder. It occurs naturally as seven isotopes, six of which are stable and one is unstable. The density is slightly superior to iridium, which has a density of 22.4 grams per cubic centimeter. Of the materials discovered to date, the heaviest substance in the world is osmium.

It belongs to a group such as lanthanum, yttrium, scandium and other lanthanides.

More expensive than gold and diamonds

It is mined very little, about ten thousand kilograms per year. Even the largest source of osmium, the Dzhezkazgan deposit, contains about three ten-millionths. The exchange value of a rare metal in the world reaches about 200 thousand dollars per gram. At the same time, the maximum purity of the element during the cleaning process is about seventy percent.

Although Russian laboratories managed to obtain a purity of 90.4 percent, the amount of metal did not exceed a few milligrams.

The Density of Matter Beyond Planet Earth

Osmium is undoubtedly the leader of the heaviest elements on our planet. But if we turn our gaze into space, then many substances heavier than our "king" of heavy elements will open to our attention.

The fact is that in the Universe there are conditions somewhat different than on Earth. The gravitation of the series is so great that the matter is incredibly compacted.

If we consider the structure of the atom, it will be found that the distances in the interatomic world are somewhat reminiscent of the cosmos we see. Where planets, stars and others are at a sufficiently large distance. The rest is occupied by emptiness. It is this structure that atoms have, and with strong gravity, this distance decreases quite a lot. Up to the “pressing” of some elementary particles into others.

Neutron stars - superdense objects of space

By searching beyond our Earth, we may be able to detect the heaviest matter in space in neutron stars.

These are quite unique space inhabitants, one of possible types evolution of stars. The diameter of such objects is from 10 to 200 kilometers, with a mass equal to our Sun or 2-3 times more.

This cosmic body mainly consists of a neutron core, which consists of fluid neutrons. Although according to some assumptions of scientists, it should be in solid state, there is no reliable information at present. However, it is known that neutron stars, reaching their compression redistribution, subsequently turn into with a colossal energy release, of the order of 10 43 -10 45 joules.

The density of such a star is comparable, for example, with the weight of Mount Everest placed in Matchbox. These are hundreds of billions of tons in one cubic millimeter. For example, to make it more clear how high the density of matter is, let's take our planet with its mass of 5.9 × 1024 kg and “turn” it into a neutron star.

As a result, to match the density neutron star, it must be reduced to the size of an ordinary apple, with a diameter of 7-10 centimeters. The density of unique stellar objects increases as you move towards the center.

Layers and density of matter

The outer layer of a star is represented by a magnetosphere. Directly below it, the density of matter already reaches the order of one ton per cubic centimeter. Given our knowledge of the Earth, it is currently the heaviest substance ever found. But don't jump to conclusions.

Let's continue our research of unique stars. They are also called pulsars, because of the high speed of rotation around their axis. This indicator for various objects ranges from several tens to hundreds of revolutions per second.

Let us proceed further in the study of superdense cosmic bodies. Then comes a layer that has the characteristics of a metal, but is most likely similar in behavior and structure. Crystals are much smaller than we see in the crystal lattice of the Earth's substances. To build a line of crystals of 1 centimeter, you will need to lay out more than 10 billion elements. The density in this layer is one million times higher than in the outer layer. It is not the heaviest matter of a star. This is followed by a layer rich in neutrons, the density of which is a thousand times higher than the previous one.

The core of a neutron star and its density

Below is the core, it is here that the density reaches its maximum - twice as high as the overlying layer. The substance of the core of a celestial body consists of all elementary particles known to physics. With this, we have reached the end of the journey to the core of the star in search of the heaviest matter in space.

The mission in search of substances unique in density in the Universe, it would seem, has been completed. But space is full of mysteries and undiscovered phenomena, stars, facts and patterns.

Black holes in the universe

You should pay attention to what is already open today. These are black holes. Perhaps it is these mysterious objects that can be contenders for the fact that the heaviest substance in the Universe is their component. Note that the gravity of black holes is so strong that light cannot escape.

According to the assumptions of scientists, the substance, drawn into the region of space-time, is compacted so much that there is no space between elementary particles.

Unfortunately, beyond the event horizon (the so-called boundary where light and any object, under the influence of gravitational forces, cannot leave a black hole), our guesses and indirect assumptions follow, based on emissions of particle flows.

A number of scientists suggest that beyond the event horizon, space and time mix. There is an opinion that they can be a "passage" to another Universe. Perhaps this corresponds to the truth, although it is quite possible that another space opens up beyond these limits with completely new laws. An area where time will change "place" with space. The location of the future and the past is determined only by the choice of following. Like our choice to go right or left.

It is potentially possible that there are civilizations in the universe that have mastered time travel through black holes. Perhaps in the future, people from planet Earth will discover the secret of time travel.

October 24, 2013

The lighter the better?

From childhood, many people remember the riddle about what is still heavier than a kilogram of down or a kilogram of lead. And many said that a kilogram of lead is heavier. For people - fluff, flower petals and dandelions seem to be something light.

Such a banal thing today as aluminum seemed to scientists of the 19th century a grandiose discovery. Many of them dreamed of dwellings for all the disadvantaged from this light and durable metal. Scientists around the world have always been interested in the creation of the lightest materials that can be transported without any problems.

Thus, humanity is trying to get closer to the divine principle, soar up and come close to the great primary source of all things. How can one not recall here the fairy tale about the invisibility cap - perhaps scientists' minds were still under the impression of children's books?

Use of the lightest materials

But the lyrical side always has a reverse, practical side. The lightest materials - one of the most significant issues and challenges modern science and, in particular, nanotechnologies. Similar materials necessary for the space and military industries, the production of computers based on the latest processors, in transplantology and many other areas of human life.

For a long time, polystyrene foam was considered one of the lightest materials created by man. This is a product of the class of foam plastics, which was made from polystyrene, coupled with its derivatives. It's hard to imagine, but this material consists of 98% air and only 2% remains on the polystyrene itself.

However, life does not stand still, and venerable scientists (after all, restless people) continue to push each other in search of new, even lighter substances. So, quite recently, the entire scientific community was excited by a new discovery in the field of light materials.

frozen air

The new substance was named "aerogel", which in Russian would sound like "frozen air" or "frozen smoke". Indeed, this substance in its appearance is very reminiscent of smoke, which, as if at the request of a crazy artist, inexplicably migrated from the canvas to reality.

This porous substance with a bluish tint resembles styrofoam or slightly hardened shaving foam. One of the main unique properties of this material is the ability to withstand loads that can exceed the own weight of the substance by more than 2000 times! And this, given that airgel is 9.8% air.

In addition, this substance is an excellent thermal insulator, which is almost 40 times superior to insulating fiberglass, so airgel is already being used in the aerospace industry today. In addition to high thermal insulation characteristics this substance practically does not transmit sound, is able to withstand the effects of the most extreme temperatures, as well as a strong impact.

In practice, a bulletproof vest made of 1 cm thick airgel would be able to protect the wearer from the explosion of a whole kilogram of dynamite. But the list called "light materials" does not end there. Chinese scientists have managed to create a material so light that it can be placed on flower petals.

Fluff that can support an elephant

Thumbelina compared to this substance, which was called graphene, is just a "fat cow". Graphene is only twice as heavy as the simplest chemical element hydrogen and less dense than helium. However, despite such lightness and airiness, this material is extremely durable.

One sheet of thickness plastic bag able to bear the weight of an elephant. It takes three million sheets of graphene to make a stack 1 mm thick. In addition, graphene has simply fantastic absorption properties - up to 900 times its own weight in oil equivalent.

And this " smart material” absorbs oil, not water, which in turn makes it extremely promising in cleaning the planet from oil slicks. In addition to all of the above, graphene is so flexible that it can safely be stretched by 20%. However, experiments to create new ultralight materials continue.

Practice shows that even more incredible discoveries await humanity in the near future. Perhaps very soon, scientific minds will present to the judgment of contemporaries substances consisting of 9.9% of air alone.

Durable materials have a wide range of uses.

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Odnoklassniki

There is not only the hardest metal, but also the hardest and strongest wood, as well as the strongest man-made materials.

Where are the most used durable materials?

Heavy-duty materials are used in many areas of life. So, chemists in Ireland and America have developed a technology by which durable textile fibers are produced.

The thread of this material is fifty micrometers in diameter. It is created from tens of millions of nanotubes, which are bonded together with the help of a polymer.

The tensile strength of this electrically conductive fiber is three times higher than the strength of the web of the orb-weaving spider. The resulting material is used to make ultra-light body armor and sports equipment.

The name of another durable material is ONNEX, created by order of the US Department of Defense. In addition to its use in the production of bulletproof vests, new material can also be used in flight control systems, sensors, engines.

There is a technology developed by scientists, thanks to which durable, hard, transparent and light materials are obtained by converting aerogels.

Based on them, it is possible to produce lightweight body armor, armor for tanks and durable Construction Materials. Novosibirsk scientists have invented a plasma reactor of a new principle, thanks to which it is possible to produce nanotubulene, a heavy-duty artificial material.

This material was discovered twenty years ago. It is a mass of elastic consistency. It consists of plexuses that cannot be seen with the naked eye. The thickness of the walls of these plexuses is one atom.

The fact that the atoms are sort of nested into each other according to the “Russian nesting doll” principle makes nanotubule the most durable material known.

When this material is added to concrete, metal, plastic, their strength and electrical conductivity are significantly enhanced. Nanotubulene will help make cars and planes more durable. If the new material comes into wide production, then roads, houses, and equipment can become very durable.

It will be very difficult to destroy them. Nanotubulene has not yet been introduced into widespread production due to the very high cost. However, Novosibirsk scientists managed to significantly reduce the cost of this material. Now nanotubulene can be produced not in kilograms, but in tons.

The hardest metal

Among all known metals, chromium is the hardest, but its hardness depends largely on its purity. Its properties are corrosion resistance, heat resistance and refractoriness. Chrome is a whitish-blue metal. Its Brinell hardness is 70-90 kgf/cm2.

The melting point of the solid metal- one thousand nine hundred and seven degrees Celsius at a density of seven thousand two hundred kg / m3.

This metal is in earth's crust at a rate of 0.02 percent, which is a lot. It is usually found as chromium ironstone. Chromium is mined from silicate rocks.

This metal is used in industry, smelting chromium steel, nichrome and so on. It is used for anti-corrosion and decorative coatings. Chromium is very rich in stone meteorites falling to Earth.

Most durable tree

There is wood that is stronger than cast iron and can be compared with the strength of iron. We are talking about "Schmidt's Birch". It is also called the Iron Birch. Man does not know a more durable tree than this. It was opened by a Russian botanist named Schmidt, while in the Far East.

Due to such properties, iron birch could well sometimes replace metal, because this wood is not subject to corrosion and decay. The ship's hull, made of Iron birch, can not even be painted, the ship will not be destroyed by corrosion, the action of acids is also not afraid of it.

Schmidt's birch cannot be pierced by a bullet, you cannot cut it down with an ax. Of all the birches on our planet, it is the Iron Birch that is long-lived - it lives for four hundred years.

Its place of growth is the Kedrovaya Pad Nature Reserve. This is a rare protected species, which is listed in the Red Book. If not for such a rarity, the heavy-duty wood of this tree could be used everywhere.

But the most tall trees in the world, sequoias are not a very durable material. But, according to uznayvse.ru, they can grow up to 150 meters in height.

The strongest material in the universe

The most durable and at the same time lightweight material our universe is graphene. This is a carbon plate, which is only one atom thick, but it is stronger than diamond, and the electrical conductivity is a hundred times higher than the silicon of computer chips.

If you follow the news in the world modern technologies, then this material will not be big news for you. However, it is useful to take a closer look at the lightest material in the world and learn a little more detail.

Less than a year ago, the title of the lightest material in the world was given to a material called airbrush. But this material did not manage to hold the palm for a long time, it was intercepted not so long ago by another carbon material called graphene airgel. Created by a research group in the laboratory of the Division of Polymer Science and Technology at Zhejiang University, led by Professor Gao Chao, the ultralight graphene airgel has a density slightly lower than that of helium gas and slightly higher than that of hydrogen gas.

Aerogels, as a class of materials, were developed and produced in 1931 by engineer and chemist Samuel Stephens Kistler. Since then, scientists from various organizations have been researching and developing such materials, despite their dubious value for practical use. Airgel consisting of multilayer carbon nanotubes, called "frozen smoke" and having a density of 4 mg / cm3, lost the title of the most light material in 2011, which moved to a metal microlattice material having a density of 0.9 mg/cm3. And a year later, the title of the lightest material passed to a carbon material called aerographite, whose density is 0.18 mg / cm3.

The new holder of the title of the lightest material, graphene airgel, created by the team of Professor Chao, has a density of 0.16 mg/cm3. In order to create such a light material, scientists used one of the most amazing and thin materials today is graphene. Using their experience in creating microscopic materials, such as "one-dimensional" graphene fibers and two-dimensional graphene ribbons, the team decided to add another dimension to the two dimensions of graphene and create a bulk porous graphene material.

Instead of the molding method, which uses a solvent material and which is usually used to produce various aerogels, Chinese scientists have used the freeze-drying method. Sublimation drying of a cooloid solution consisting of a liquid filler and graphene particles made it possible to create a porous carbon sponge, the shape of which almost completely repeated the given shape.

“There is no need to use templates, the size and shape of the carbon ultralight material we create depends only on the shape and dimensions of the container,” says Professor Chao, “The amount of airgel produced depends only on the size of the container, which can have a volume measured in thousands of cubic centimeters.”

The resulting graphene airgel is an extremely strong and resilient material. It can absorb organic materials, including oil, by weight exceeding 900 times its own weight with high speed absorption. One gram of airgel absorbs 68.8 grams of oil in just one second, making it an attractive material to use as an absorber for oil spilled in the ocean.

In addition to serving as an oil scavenger, graphene airgel has the potential to be used in energy storage systems, as a catalyst for some chemical reactions, and as a filler for complex composite materials.

The world around us is fraught with many more mysteries, but even long-known phenomena scientists and substances never cease to amaze and delight. We admire bright colors, enjoy the tastes and use the properties of all kinds of substances that make our life more comfortable, safer and more enjoyable. In search of the most reliable and strong materials man has made many exciting discoveries, and in front of you is a selection of just 25 such unique compounds!

25. Diamonds

If not everyone, then almost everyone knows this for sure. Diamonds are not only one of the most revered precious stones, but also one of the hardest minerals on Earth. On the Mohs scale (a scale of hardness in which an assessment is given by the reaction of a mineral to scratching), diamond is listed on the 10th line. There are 10 positions in the scale, and the 10th is the last and hardest degree. Diamonds are so hard that they can only be scratched with other diamonds.

24. Trapping webs of the spider species Caaerostris darwini


Photo: pixabay

It's hard to believe, but the network of the spider Caerostris darwini (or Darwin's spider) is stronger than steel and harder than Kevlar. This web was recognized as the hardest biological material in the world, although now it has a potential competitor, but the data has not yet been confirmed. Spider fiber was tested for characteristics such as breaking strain, impact strength, tensile strength and Young's modulus (the property of a material to resist stretching, compression under elastic deformation), and in all these indicators, the web showed itself in an amazing way. In addition, the trapping web of the Darwin spider is incredibly light. For example, if we wrap our planet with Caaerostris darwini fiber, the weight of such a long thread will be only 500 grams. Such long networks do not exist, but the theoretical calculations are simply amazing!

23. Aerographite


Photo: BrokenSphere

This synthetic foam is one of the lightest fibrous materials in the world and is a network of carbon tubes only a few microns in diameter. Aerographite is 75 times lighter than polystyrene, but at the same time much stronger and more ductile. It can be compressed to a size 30 times smaller original form, without any harm to its extremely elastic structure. Thanks to this property, airgraphite foam can withstand loads up to 40,000 times its own weight.

22. Palladium metallic glass


Photo: pixabay

A team of scientists from the California Institute of Technology and Berkeley Lab (California Institute of Technology, Berkeley Lab) has developed a new type of metallic glass that combines a near-perfect combination of strength and ductility. The reason for the uniqueness of the new material lies in the fact that its chemical structure successfully masks the brittleness of existing glassy materials while maintaining a high endurance threshold, which ultimately significantly increases the fatigue strength of this synthetic structure.

21. Tungsten carbide


Photo: pixabay

Tungsten carbide is incredible solid material with high wear resistance. AT certain conditions this joint is considered to be very brittle, but under heavy load it exhibits unique plastic properties, manifesting itself in the form of slip bands. Thanks to all these qualities, tungsten carbide is used in the manufacture of armor-piercing tips and various equipment, including all kinds of cutters, abrasive discs, drills, cutters, drill bits and other cutting tools.

20. Silicon carbide


Photo: Tiia Monto

Silicon carbide is one of the main materials used to make battle tanks. This compound is known for its low cost, outstanding refractoriness, and high hardness, and is therefore often used in the manufacture of equipment or gear that must deflect bullets, cut, or grind other hard materials. Silicon carbide makes excellent abrasives, semiconductors, and even inserts in Jewelry imitating diamonds.

19. Cubic boron nitride


Photo: wikimedia commons

Cubic boron nitride is a superhard material, similar in hardness to diamond, but also has a number of distinctive advantages - high temperature stability and chemical resistance. Cubic boron nitride does not dissolve in iron and nickel even under the influence of high temperatures, while diamond under the same conditions enters into chemical reactions fast enough. In fact, this is beneficial for its use in industrial grinding tools.

18. Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene high density(UHMWPE), Dyneema fiber brand


Photo: Justsail

High modulus polyethylene has extremely high wear resistance, low coefficient of friction and high fracture toughness (low temperature reliability). Today it is considered the strongest fibrous substance in the world. The most amazing thing about this polyethylene is that it is lighter than water and can stop bullets at the same time! Cables and ropes made of Dyneema fibers do not sink in water, do not need lubrication and do not change their properties when wet, which is very important for shipbuilding.

17. Titanium alloys


Photo: Alchemist-hp (pse-mendelejew.de)

Titanium alloys are incredibly ductile and show amazing strength when stretched. In addition, they have high heat resistance and corrosion resistance, which makes them extremely useful in areas such as aircraft, rocketry, shipbuilding, chemical, food and transport engineering.

16. Liquid metal alloy


Photo: pixabay

Developed in 2003 at the California Institute of Technology, this material is renowned for its strength and durability. The name of the compound is associated with something fragile and liquid, but when room temperature it is actually unusually hard, wear-resistant, not afraid of corrosion and transforms when heated, like thermoplastics. The main areas of application so far are the manufacture of watches, golf clubs and coatings for mobile phones(Vertu, iPhone).

15. Nanocellulose


Photo: pixabay

Nanocellulose is isolated from wood fiber and is a new species wooden material which is even stronger than steel! In addition, nanocellulose is also cheaper. The innovation has great potential and could seriously compete with glass and carbon fiber in the future. The developers believe that this material will soon be in great demand in the production of army armor, super-flexible screens, filters, flexible batteries, absorbent aerogels and biofuels.

14. Teeth of snails of the "sea saucer" type


Photo: pixabay

Earlier, we already told you about the trapping web of Darwin's spider, which was once recognized as the most durable biological material on the planet. However, a recent study showed that the limpet is the most durable biological substance known to science. Yes, these teeth are stronger than the web of Caaerostris darwini. And this is not surprising, because tiny sea ​​creatures feed on algae growing on the surface of harsh rocks, and to separate food from rock, these animals have to work hard. Scientists believe that in the future we will be able to use the example of the fibrous structure of the teeth of marine limpets in the engineering industry and begin to build cars, boats, and even aircraft increased strength, inspired by the example of simple snails.

13. Maraging steel


Photo: pixabay

Maraging steel is a high strength and high alloy alloy with excellent ductility and toughness. The material is widely used in rocket science and is used to make all kinds of tools.

12. Osmium


Photo: Periodictableru / www.periodictable.ru

Osmium is an incredibly dense element, and due to its hardness and high temperature it is difficult to melt machining. That is why osmium is used where durability and strength are most valued. Osmium alloys are found in electrical contacts, rocketry, military projectiles, surgical implants, and many other applications.

11. Kevlar


Photo: wikimedia commons

Kevlar is a high tenacity fiber found in car tires, brake pads, cables, prosthetic and orthopedic products, body armor, protective clothing fabrics, shipbuilding and parts of unmanned aerial vehicles aircraft. The material has become almost synonymous with strength and is a type of plastic with incredible high strength and elasticity. The tensile strength of Kevlar is 8 times higher than that of steel wire, and it begins to melt at a temperature of 450℃.

10. Ultra high molecular weight polyethylene of high density, brand of fibers "Spectra" (Spectra)


Photo: Tomas Castelazo, www.tomascastelazo.com / Wikimedia Commons

UHMWPE is essentially a very durable plastic. Spectra, the UHMWPE brand, is, in turn, a light fiber of the highest wear resistance, 10 times superior to steel in this indicator. Like Kevlar, spectrum is used in the manufacture of body armor and protective helmets. Along with UHMWPE, dainimo spectrum is popular in the shipbuilding and transport industries.

9. Graphene


Photo: pixabay

Graphene is an allotropic modification of carbon, and its crystal cell only one atom thick is so strong that it is 200 times harder than steel. Graphene looks like cling film, but tearing it apart is an almost impossible task. To punch through a graphene sheet, you have to stick a pencil into it, on which you will have to balance a load with the weight of an entire school bus. Good luck!

8. Carbon nanotube paper


Photo: pixabay

Thanks to nanotechnology, scientists have managed to make paper that is 50,000 times thinner than a human hair. Sheets of carbon nanotubes are 10 times lighter than steel, but the most amazing thing is that they are as much as 500 times stronger! Macroscopic nanotube plates are the most promising for the manufacture of supercapacitor electrodes.

7. Metal microgrid


Photo: pixabay

Here is the lightest metal in the world! The metal microgrid is a synthetic porous material that is 100 times lighter than foam. But let him appearance Don't be fooled, these microgrids are also incredibly strong, making them great potential for use in all sorts of engineering applications. They can be used to make excellent shock absorbers and thermal insulators, and the amazing ability of this metal to shrink and return to its original state allows it to be used to store energy. Metal microgrids are also actively used in the production of various parts for the aircraft of the American company Boeing.

6. Carbon nanotubes


Photo: User Mstroeck / en.wikipedia

Above, we have already talked about ultra-strong macroscopic carbon nanotube plates. But what kind of material is this? In fact, these are graphene planes rolled into a tube (9th point). The result is an incredibly light, resilient and durable material for a wide range of applications.

5. Airbrush


Photo: wikimedia commons

Also known as graphene airgel, this material is extremely light and strong at the same time. The new type of gel has completely replaced the liquid phase with a gaseous one, and it is characterized by sensational hardness, heat resistance, low density and low thermal conductivity. Incredibly, graphene airgel is 7 times lighter than air! The unique compound is able to regain its original shape even after 90% compression and can absorb up to 900 times the weight of oil used to absorb airbrush. Perhaps in the future this class of materials will help in the fight against such environmental disasters like oil spills.

4. Material without a name, the development of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)


Photo: pixabay

As you read this, a team of scientists at MIT is working to improve the properties of graphene. The researchers said that they have already managed to convert the two-dimensional structure of this material into three-dimensional. The new graphene substance has not yet received its name, but it is already known that its density is 20 times less than that of steel, and its strength is 10 times higher than that of steel.

3. Carbin


Photo: Smokefoot

Even though it's just linear chains of carbon atoms, carbyne has 2x the tensile strength of graphene and is 3x harder than diamond!

2. Boron nitride wurtzite modification


Photo: pixabay

This newly discovered natural substance is formed during volcanic eruptions and is 18% harder than diamonds. However, it surpasses diamonds in a number of other parameters. Wurtzite boron nitride is one of only 2 natural substances found on Earth that is harder than diamond. The problem is that there are very few such nitrides in nature, and therefore they are not easy to study or apply in practice.

1. Lonsdaleite


Photo: pixabay

Also known as hexagonal diamond, lonsdaleite is made up of carbon atoms, but in this modification, the atoms are arranged slightly differently. Like wurtzite boron nitride, lonsdaleite is a natural substance that is harder than diamond. Moreover, this amazing mineral is harder than diamond by as much as 58%! Like wurtzite boron nitride, this compound is extremely rare. Sometimes lonsdaleite is formed during a collision with the Earth of meteorites, which include graphite.