The influence of herbivorous animals on plants was performed by Fomina K. The main environmental factors and their influence on plants

The life environment of a plant is made up of many different elements that affect the body. Separate elements of the external environment are called environmental factors.

Environmental factors affecting the body can be divided into two main groups:

1. Factors of life, nature, or biotic, associated with the influence of other living organisms (plants, animals, humans).

2. inanimate factors, or abiotic. These include light, temperature, humidity, composition of the water, air, soil environment, etc.

For the life of organisms that make up natural communities, certain conditions are necessary. Living conditions depend on the influence of various environmental factors. You already know that almost all life on Earth is powered by the sun.

The energy of sunlight enters natural communities as a result of photosynthesis of green plants. Organic substances formed during photosynthesis serve as a source of energy for the plants themselves and for their consumers.

Thus, plants play the most important role in the natural community, so we will consider the features of natural communities using their example.

All environmental factors affect the plant and are necessary for their life. But especially sharp changes in the external appearance and in the internal structure of the plant are caused by such factors of inanimate nature as light, temperature, and humidity.

Effect of light on plants. Light is one of the most important factors in the life of a green plant, as it is

is a source of energy in the process of photosynthesis. It also affects other functions of the plant organism - its growth, flowering, fruiting, and in plants such as timothy, strawberries, wild hoof and others, and seed germination.

The ratio of plants to light is different, according to this feature, three groups are distinguished: light-loving, shade-loving and shade-tolerant.

light-loving plants live only in sunlit open areas. Light-loving include steppe and meadow grasses, cultivated plants open ground, from tree species - pine, birch, larch, white locust, from indoor plants - coleus .

shade plants do not tolerate strong lighting and grow well only in shaded places. This is herbaceous plants spruce forests and oak forests, for example raven eye, double-leaved manik, anemone, many forest ferns. From indoor plants, aspidistra, some types of ferns can be attributed to shade-loving ones.

shade tolerant plants grow well in the light, but can tolerate shading. This group of plants includes many tree species with dense crowns, in which some of the leaves are heavily shaded (linden, oak, beech, ash, etc.), many herbaceous plants of forests, edges and meadows, from indoor plants - monstera, sansevier, uzambar violet and many others .

Effect of temperature on plants. Each type of plant has adapted to a certain temperature regime. But for all plants, both overheating and excessive cooling are dangerous.

Action over the top high temperatures can cause desiccation, burns, destruction of chlorophyll in plants, disruption of vital processes and lead to death.

Light-loving plants are often exposed to high temperatures, often combined with a lack of moisture. These plants have developed a variety of adaptations to avoid the harmful effects of overheating: the vertical position of the leaves, folding leaf blades(cereals), a decrease in the surface of the leaf, the development of thorns (cacti), the ability to store large amounts of water, a developed root system, dense pubescence, which gives the leaves a light color and enhances the reflection of incident light, etc.

Cold can also adversely affect plants. When water freezes in the intercellular spaces and inside the cell, ice crystals form, causing damage to cells and their death. Plants in cold habitats that have to endure cold winters develop defensive changes.

Perennial grasses and shrubs of the polar and high mountain regions are very small leaves and small sizes (dwarf birch, dwarf willow). Their height corresponds to the depth of the snow cover, since all parts protruding above the snow perish.

In some shrubs and trees, growth in the horizontal direction begins to predominate, for example, in cedar dwarf, juniper, mountain ash, etc. Their branches spread along the ground and do not rise above the usual depth of the snow cover.

In the cold season, plants slow down all life processes. Preparation for the state of winter dormancy begins in advance. Plants shed their leaves. They have lignified shoots and thickening of the cork layer. In many herbaceous plants, above-ground organs die off. Some aquatic plants sink to the bottom of water bodies or form overwintering buds.

Effect of humidity on plants. Water is the most important component of a plant cell, therefore its quantity in one place or another largely determines the nature of the vegetation. In plants of deserts, dry steppes, water makes up 30-65% of the total mass, in forest-steppe plants - up to 70-80%, in moisture-loving plants it reaches 90%.

In relation to moisture, plants can be divided into three groups.

1. Plants of aquatic and excessively humid habitats.

2. Plants of dry habitats, with great drought tolerance.

3. Plants living in average (sufficient) moisture conditions.

The plants included in these environmental groups, have characteristic features of their external and internal structure. They have similar life processes.

Effect of minerals on plants. You know that on different soils various plants grow and develop differently. This is due to the peculiarities of the mineral nutrition of various plants.

Plants receive various minerals from the soil, but most of all they need nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, as well as small amounts of boron, manganese, iron, etc.

The influence of living organisms on plants. Animals feed on plants, pollinate them, carry fruits and seeds. Large plants can shade young, small ones. Some plants use others as support. Microorganisms that decompose plant residues enrich the soil with humus and minerals.

In turn, plants affect the environment. They change the composition of the air: humidify it, absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Plants change the composition of the soil. They absorb certain substances from it and release others into it. Root systems plants fix the slopes of ravines, hills, river valleys, protecting the soil from destruction. Forest precipitation protects the fields from dry winds. Plants that evaporate a lot of moisture, such as eucalyptus trees, can be used to drain wetlands.

The impact of human activity. Man drains swamps and irrigates arid lands, creating favorable conditions for growing crops. He develops new highly productive and disease-resistant plant varieties. Man fights weeds and promotes the spread of valuable plants.

But human activity can harm nature. Thus, improper irrigation causes waterlogging and salinization of soils and often leads to the death of plants. Due to deforestation, the fertile soil layer is destroyed and deserts can even form. There are many similar examples, and all of them indicate that man has a huge impact on the plant world and nature in general.

21. Ecology of coniferous forest plants. \

Coniferous forest is one of the most interesting objects of wildlife on our planet. A lot of effort has been spent on its study and not in vain - after all, the forest for a person has always been a source of untold wealth.
Coniferous forests grow mainly in areas with a cold climate. If we imagine their location on the globe, then we will see a wide belt covering the northern part of Russia, Scandinavia, Canada and America. At the same time, there are few relic forests left; they are gradually being replaced by artificially planted ones.
The main trees of the coniferous forest are cedar, pine, fir, larch. These species have different requirements for soil moisture and fertility, which is why forests are divided into two types - dark coniferous (spruce, fir, cedar) and light coniferous (pine, larch). In Russia, a mixture of these two types is often found.
Like any other forests, conifers have several floors (tiers). The tiers of coniferous forests are, as a rule, clearly defined. Upper (woody), understory (or shrubby), herbaceous-shrub layer and moss-lichen cover. However, due to insufficient illumination in dark coniferous forests, the undergrowth and grass-shrub layer may be absent.
The species composition of plants depends on the degree of illumination, soil composition and many other factors. But there are coniferous forest plants that are recognized as its characteristic and integral part. Of the shrubs, these are juniper, currant, buckthorn, willow. Shrubs - blueberries, lingonberries, cranberries, heather. Herbs - Ivan tea, angelica, hogweed, sour, wintergreen and many others. The most typical for coniferous forests are ferns and mosses (mosses, sphagnum).
As already noted, the diversity of species largely depends on the quality of soils. The soil of a coniferous forest can be not only clayey, but also loamy and sandy. Coniferous forests rise both on rock outcrops and in swampy areas.

An array dominated by spruces and cedars may seem gloomy and unsociable. Their branches are tightly closed with each other, creating a formidable barrier to the sun's rays. Who would want to live in such a place? There are people who want to, and there are a lot of them. Here you can hear the clatter of woodpeckers, the hooting of the tawny owl and the sparrow owl, the sharp cries of the kuksha and the trill of the nutcracker. Capercaillie, wild grouse, crossbills, tits, chickadees, kinglets - all of them are birds of the coniferous forest. Without some of them (nutcrackers, crossbills), its very existence would be difficult.
It is good to go mushroom picking in a pine or spruce forest. The dry earth, covered with a thick layer of pine needles, seems to be springy underfoot, urging you on. In the spruce forest there are mushrooms, chanterelles, russula, mushrooms, puffballs, champignons. The pine forest will delight you with butter, honey mushrooms, pigs, greenfinches. Milk mushrooms and rows are autumn mushrooms of a coniferous forest.
What else will the forest give its guests, where giant cedars and slender pines reign? Pine nuts, essential oils, berries, medicinal herbs - this is a small fraction of all his treasures. And let's not forget about hunting and fishing.
The trees themselves are actively used in the construction and production of various materials. Forests also play a huge role in the formation of an atmosphere suitable for breathing.

The relationship between animals and plants is extremely diverse. They play a significant role in the life of phytocenoses, affecting their structure, composition and characteristics. Plants, animals and microorganisms of the biocenosis form a single complex system, combined trophic chains(See Section 1). They form a branched trophic web. But almost always at the heart of all these chains are plants. Only in the biocenoses of caves and at considerable depths of the seas and oceans are green plants absent. Biomass in the food chains of terrestrial ecosystems is distributed according to ecological pyramid rules(Fig. 9.7).

Based on the fact that most plants and animals in the ecosystem are, respectively, producers and consumers. the influence of animals on the vegetation cover is manifested, first of all, in trophic relationships.

Phytophages (from Greek Phyton - plant, phagos - eater) - animals that feed on plants.

Phytophages are the first-order consumer, providing the primary stage of biomass processing of living plants in ecosystems. Consumption of plant phytomass by animals reaches a significant scale. For example, an adult moose in summer eats 30 kg of various plant foods per day, in winter - about 10 kg of shoots and bark of tree species from 300 - 400 trees and bushes. Quite often, an elk damages the bark and young shoots (including the main ones), which leads to their death, growth retardation, and the like. Trees broken or bent by an elk become available to small animals - hares. Significant damage is caused by elk to forest plantations of Scots pine and Scots oak in the Forest-Steppe and Polissya of Ukraine. In places of high density of elk, some plants (for example, mountain ash) may disappear altogether. There are quite a lot of phytophages among small animals - mouse-like rodents. Each individual animal eats relatively little, but given their large numbers, the feeding activity of rodents poses a real threat to the restoration of individual plant species. In the Tula region of Russia, in some years, the vole destroys up to 70% of the young undergrowth of elm, maple, and oak. Actively feed on plants 1 bird. Yes. a medium-sized capercaillie eats at least 200 g of studs every day (in an air-dry state), which is up to 6 kg per month. White partridges eat buds and small particles of birch and willow shoots. At one time, the partridge is able to eat 20 m of shoots.

Rice. 9.7. Ecological pyramid of biomass and trophic levels in an ecosystem

(According to H. F. Reimers, 1990)

Aquatic animals are involved in the trophic chains of fresh and salt water bodies - from zooplankton to giant mammals. The total biomass of phytoplankton is small compared to the biomass of zooplankton (respectively, 1.5 and 20 billion tons). But, due to rapid reproduction, the productivity of phytoplankton is almost ten times higher than the total productivity of the entire animal world of the World Ocean. Phytoplankton is the basis of the food pyramid of water bodies. It is eaten by small animals, which, in turn, serve as the basis of nutrition for consumers of higher orders.

Plankton (from the Greek Planktos - the one wandering) - the totality of organisms inhabiting the water column of continental and marine reservoirs is capable of being carried by the current.

In addition to destroying the vegetative parts of plants, animals disrupt the reproduction of trees and bushes. They eat flower buds, flowers, seeds and fruits. The squirrel uses all the seeds that are contained in cones of conifers. Great checkered woodpecker eats in cones 70 % seeds, Shishkarev - 20-30%. Thus, a small amount of seeds remains in the cones that the birds drop to the ground. But also on the surface of the soil there is an intensive eating of them. Studies have shown that in the Buzuluk pine forest, with a high yield of Scots pine seeds (100 seeds per 1 m2), it can be completely seen by mouse-like rodents, the number of which reaches 80 individuals per 1 ha. Usually, during the years of high yields of seeds and fruits, favorable conditions for the reproduction of rodents, but the peak of their numbers appears only in the next year, which, as a rule, is lean in plants. Therefore, the largest number of animals coincides with a low yield, which leads to the death of a part of the rodents and to the complete destruction of the plant crop. Significant damage is caused by the seeds of the plant in more extreme climatic zones - steppes and deserts. For example, in the Eastern Karakum, one individual of the great gerbil stores 4-5 kg ​​of seeds of various plant species in minks. Due to this, the harvest of black saxaul, for example, can be destroyed by 70 - 80%. Given its low and intermittent yields and extreme conditions for recovery, it is difficult to wait for the germination of seeds left.

But not only animals eat plants. An interesting phenomenon occurs in nature - insectivorous plants. In nutrient-poor ecological conditions, especially with a lack of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, plants have developed an adaptation to feed on animals.

Insectivorous plants are floral terrestrial and aquatic plants, in addition to the usual nutrition for plants, they are able to feed on insects and small animals.

About 500 species of such plants are known, only 11 species are found in Ukraine (2 species of the Crassula genus, 3 of the sundew genus, 5 of the blister genus, and 1 of the Aldrovandus genus). In common in oligotrophic and mesotrophic swamps of Polissya round-leaved sundew (Drosera rotundifolia) the leaves are covered with sticky hairs, to which the insect sticks. Then the leaf is twisted and the insect falls into a trap, where it is digested under the action of proteolytic enzymes. In a day, one sundew plant is able to digest several insects.

Such a feature of nutrition is an exception, because, as a rule, animals consume plants, and not vice versa. Using a significant amount of plant biomass for food, animals significantly change the structure of some phytocenoses, which in some cases leads to a complete change in vegetation. For example, thanks to the activity of geese, which intensively eat grass, there is a successive change of vegetation in the tundra. Geese arrive in early spring and begin to extract starchy rhizomes from under the snow, eat buds and young shoots of plants. In the places of their settlement, the vegetation cover is destroyed by 50 - 80%, which leads to a change in the downy-moss tundra into a moss one. In the future, under the influence of intensive aeration and better drying of the upper horizons of the soil, a deeper thawing of permafrost occurs. Moss tundra changes into sedge-puffy spotted tundra, and then into sedge-moss spotted tundra. Blue-green algae, nostoc, grow in exposed areas. Another example is lemmings - rodents also live in the tundra. They destroy intensely different kinds plants, especially in winter. Despite the small size (weight about 50 g) per day, one animal eats 75 - 100 g of fresh plant matter, and this is 40 - 50 kg per year. In the locations of the colonies (1.5-2 ha), which they create on the slopes of the hills, the animals eat 90-94% of the vegetation. Lemmings do not touch dry plants. In areas inhabited by lemmings, plants can bloom and bear fruit only in those years when the rodent population is sharply reduced. In the spring, water washes away the plants (up to 1 - 2 t / ha) in low places. This leads to the formation of peat mounds 10-15 m long. Lemmings move to higher ground and again dig holes, throwing out up to 250 kg of soil from 1 ha of area. This example shows how significant changes in the structure of the relief and vegetation cover can be caused by the vital activity of only a small animal. In the temperate zone, the activity of rodents also often leads to a change in the species composition of phytocenoses. For example, in the Forest-Steppe of Ukraine, where oak and ash grow, rodents feed on more nutritious oak acorns. This leads to the fact that the oak, due to the lack of seed renewal, is replaced by ash. In addition, rodents destroy a significant amount of elm and linden seeds, but much less than Norway maple. This also creates conditions for the gradual replacement of these tree species with maple. In Great Britain, in places where rabbits feed mainly on such herbaceous plants as sheep's fescue, thin bent grass, there is an intensive growth of common heather, sandy sedge, and bracken, which are inedible for animals. So more complex plant groupings turn into simple ones, where one of the named species dominates.

The influence of some animal species on soil and vegetation leads to the formation of specific zoogenic complexes of terrestrial ecosystems. The factors of this influence are very diverse:

Formation of zoogenic nanorelief;

Change in mechanical and chemical composition soil, due to the removal of the parent rock and deeper layers of soil to the surface;

Violation of the physical structure of the soil due to loosening or, conversely, compaction, pollution with organic substances, etc.:

Disturbance of vegetation cover by selective eating of edible plants and increased plant growth remain.

There are many examples of such zoogenic complexes in various zones planets. Thus, in the dry steppe of the Tselinograd region of Kazakhstan, vegetation from Lessing's feather grass is typical ( Stipa lessingiana), bonfire grooves ( Festuca nipicola) tree tansy ( Tanacetum achilleifolium) tatar criteria (Crinitaria tatarica), growing on dark chestnut soils that lie on deep loess-like loams. But it changes in places inhabited by marmots. Digging holes, animals create low (about 0.5 m in height) tubercles with a diameter of 10-20 cm. They are composed of loess-like loam thrown to the surface, more saline than the surrounding lands. The vegetation in the central part of the babachina is completely destroyed, and on the periphery it is represented by sparse aggregations of xero- and halophilic vegetation with a projective cover of 10-30%. It consists of creeping vine ( Kochia prostrate) broken grate Sitnikov ( Psathyrostachys juncea) branched grate ( Leymus racemosus) bonfire furrow, Austrian sagebrush (Artemisia repens). The Babachiny are surrounded by the fodder area of ​​the Babakov family with a diameter of 50 - 100 m. Here the vegetation is represented by animal forbs and grasses with a projective cover in the range of 10-20%. Abandoned babachyns are overgrown with relatively dense vegetation of various compositions with a projective cover of 40 - 70%. Given that in the steppes of Northern Kazakhstan, the density of marmots averages 0.78 individuals per hectare, it is clear that very large areas of steppe phytocenoses change quite significantly under the influence of these animals. Peculiar zoogenic complexes are formed in the places of beaver settlement. The construction of the dam causes the rise of water in streams, rivers and reclamation canals, in turn, leads to flooding of large areas. Under these hydrological conditions, mesophytic plants disappear and hydrophytes and hygrophytes become more widespread. In addition, as a result of foraging activities, soft-leaved tree species that are used by beavers for food disappear - first aspen, birch, and later other deciduous species. The areas are overgrown with shrubs of some species of willows.

Phytophages include not only vertebrates, but also invertebrates. Among the latter, the most diverse, most common and most numerous are insects (Fig. 9.8). Phytophagous insects are part of any biogeocenosis. Tree species are affected by various specialized groups of insects: needle- and leaf-grisms, derevinoids, and suckers. A special group is made up of halo-creating insects. They cause pathological growth of part of plant tissues (usually leaves) in the form of galls and other teratological (ugly) formations. Gali are formed under the action of secretions not only of insects, but also of mites. Many insects feed on fruits, damaging and destroying them.

Rice. 9.8. Classification of insects by type of food

It is known that all components of biogeocenosis are located between themselves and environment in dynamic balance. The number of insects that can be harmful to plants is low, but sufficient to maintain the population. An outbreak of mass reproduction of insects is their reaction to the violation of this balance. Certain patterns noted in the repetition of mass reproductions of needle-needle insects in the forests of Ukraine (Table 9.2). Researchers associate such outbursts with the dynamics of solar activity, climatic characteristics of the territory, and the like.

Table 9.2

Cyclicity of mass reproductions of insects-tail-bugs in Ukraine

(According to V. L. Meshkov, 2002)

kind of insect	Historical period of mass reproduction (number of years)	Intervals between mass reproduction, years
Green oak leaflet
goldguz
gypsy moth
winter moth		4-8, 11 - 12, 14,37
leaf rollers
Oak Walking Silkworm
oak chubatka
common pine sawfly
ringed silkworm		5-9, 12, 14, 18, 20
silver hole
Red pine sawfly	1866- 1995 (130)
pine moth
pine scoop		6-9, 11 - 13, 18- 19
pine silkworm		4-5, 7-8. 10-13, 16
Chervonohvist		5, 8, 10- 12, 14, 16 - 17, 23
nun		4-6, 8-9, 12, 16, 19-20, 26

With the mass reproduction of insects, the destruction of certain plants on thousands of hectares is observed. At the end of the XIX century on the territory of the Krasnoyarsk Territory Russian Federation 9 outbreaks of mass reproduction of the Siberian silkworm were recorded. Pests covered 9 million hectares of the taiga. On some of them (20 - 25%), woody vegetation was completely destroyed, on the other - it was significantly damaged. The weakened plantations had outbreaks of wood pests and they also faded. And there are many such examples in history.

The response of vegetation to the impact of phytophages depends on natural conditions and features of abiotic factors. So, the intensity of photosynthesis depends on factors such as lighting, moisture and heat. If photosynthesis is limited by the intensity of light input, then eating a certain amount of leaves by phytophages can increase plant productivity. In the case when photosynthesis is limited by the supply of moisture available in the soil, then the removal of a part of the phytomass does not change productivity, provided that the soil moisture is fully used by the plants. And if productivity is limited by the lack of heat (with a short growing season), then any removal of phytomass affects negatively. Thus, studies carried out in the African savannahs (Selengeti region) showed that when 20-30% of the above-ground phytomass is removed, the intensity of plant growth and their productivity increase. With a greater removal of plants, their productivity decreased. When sheep destroyed 70% of the crop of aboveground phytomass in the pastures of the temperate zone in Poland (Carpathians) and Norway, an increase in the yield of aboveground phytomass by 30 - 100% was observed. At the same time, in the tundra, any removal of phytomass led to an almost proportional decrease in its productivity (Fig. 9.9).

Plants, often eaten by phytophagous animals, have evolved a number of protective adaptations. Protection from eating can be strong integumentary and mechanical tissues, various growths, spines, edges, and the like. It is believed that the ability of plants to quickly recover from damage is also a protective reaction. For example, in herbaceous plants, after eating or cutting, a rapid restoration of the vegetative mass occurs. In tree and shrub species, after overeating of leaves by insects, the growth of dormant and new buds begins, and the remaining leaves increase in size. Some species have developed specific ways to eliminate damage - the formation of calluses, the release of resinous substances.

Rice. 9.9. Dependence of the productivity of HIV vegetation on the value of phytomass removal in different environmental conditions

(According to McNaughton, 1979 (A), B. D. Abaturov, 1980 (B). N. Yu. Andreyashkina and N. I. Igoshev. 1970 (C))

A - savannas of Africa; B - semi-deserts (ver.) And steppes (lower) C - tundra.

Kal yus (from lat. Callus - thick skin, callus) - tissue formed in plants at the site of injury and promotes wound healing.

Calous formations are formed from homogeneous parenchymal cells, which have a great growth potential. Another example of protective adaptations may be the biochemical unsuitability of plants for consumption by animals. Certain secondary metabolites of plants that are not directly involved in metabolism make the phytomass poisonous (toxins) or repel animals (repellents). For example, there is evidence that the alkaloid solanine contained in the vegetative organs of potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), at a sufficiently large dose, it can cause teratogenesis in mammals. In the seeds of the castor bean (Ricinus communis) what grows in the fields, gardens and parks of southern Ukraine contains the toxic protein ricin. Even in ancient China, powder from some chrysanthemums and chamomiles, containing pyrethrins toxic to insects, was used as a natural insecticide. Some alkaloids, glycosides and other toxic substances give plants a bitter taste. Sometimes poisonousness in plants appears only at a certain period of their development. Secondary plant metabolites that affect phytophages need not be toxic. For example, in the 1940s, an interesting discovery was made in Australia. It turned out that the extension of the grazing time of sheep on pastures where underground clover grows (Trifolium subterraneum), leads to a decrease in the fertility of animals. The reason is isoflavonoids, which are similar in structure and action to animal sex hormones. The problem is compounded by the fact that this plant has adapted well to the environment, created a large supply of seeds and therefore cannot be replaced by other types of clover. Another example of non-toxic protection against eating is the characteristics of resin formation in Scots pine. Young healthy pines have very high resin pressure, so when pests get under the bark, they immediately come into contact with the resin. Under the influence of the chemical compounds of the resin, insects are delayed in their development, as a result of which they lose the ability to reproduce. Pine yellow has terpenes, which have a detrimental effect on beetles.

Thus, the presence of protective adaptations in plants aimed at limiting the activity of phytophages can have a different character:

Recovery of biomass losses or its additional production;

Stimulation of seed and vegetative reproduction;

Formation of protective tissues;

Localization of harmful effects;

Mechanical protection;

The production of substances creates biochemical and physiological unsuitability of tissues for human consumption.

The above characteristics or properties of plants provide them with relative resistance to being eaten by animals. At the same time, the protective adaptations of plants were developed not suddenly, but through long-term coexistence, in the process of evolutionary interaction between phytophagous animals and plants. This is a manifestation of biotic relationships in natural ecosystems. Plant populations usually have a significant margin of resistance. In the process of evolution, the relationship between plants and animals became balanced, as a result of which the phytophage does not completely destroy the plant species that serves as food for it. But there are times when the balance is upset. For example, in the case of mass reproduction of insect pests, when abiotic environmental factors change, and the like. The consequence of imbalance in the trophic chain "plants - herbivores" is a change in some plant communities others.

Eating does not exhaust the connections between plants and animals in ecosystems. Long coexistence has led to the fact that not only animals benefit from plants, but also plants "learned" to use animals. universal example such a mutually beneficial relationship is the participation of animals in pollination, Bestiality is the pollination of plants by animals.

Sometimes cross-pollination occurs with the help of mammals (bats, rodents, some marsupials), but the main method is entomophilia - pollination by insects. In the process of evolution, plants and animals have developed a number of adaptations aimed at maximizing the efficiency of pollination. The flowering plants have a brightly colored perianth and produce nectar, pollen, sometimes wax and resin. In many cases, adaptation to pollination of plants and animals was common, that is, it went through co-evolution. For example, an increase in the corolla of an ordinary Datura flower (Datura stramonium) corresponds to the elongated proboscis of the hawk moth, which pollinates it. C. Darwin also noticed that in each species of orchids, the shape of the perianth corresponds to the structure of the body and the behavior of those insects that pollinate them. Some of the flower shaped orchids resemble the female insects that pollinate. Even flowering in these and many other plant species is closely related to certain stages of insect development.

The role of animals in plant reproduction is not limited to bestiality. No less important is the participation of animals in the distribution of plant diaspores.

Zoochory is the transfer and distribution of plant diaspores by animals.

Depending on the characteristics of the image, the transfer of plant diaspores by animals can be divided into the following groups:

endozoochory - dispersal of fruits, seeds and other diaspores by passing intact through the gastrointestinal tract and excreted in the faeces;

epizoochory - distribution of fruits, seeds of plants and other diaspores by attaching to the surface of the body of animals using various devices;

synzoochory - distribution of fruits, seeds of plants and other diasporas in the process of storing food, building nests, etc.;

As noted above, fruits and seeds are nutritious foods that make up the diet of many species. A significant number of diaspores pass through the stomach of animals and birds intact and are transported to considerable distances from the place of eating. As a result, new territories are populated by plants. In addition, under the conditions of movement by the digestive tract and under the action of gastric and intestinal juice, the shells of fruits and seeds are weakened, moisture penetrates from them, which, in turn, increases the germination of seeds. Numerous ruminants of the African savannas consume hard-shelled acacia fruits. They are not damaged in the gastrointestinal tract, but once in the soil along with excrement, they receive optimal conditions for germination and development.

In our forests, the jay not only consumes acorns, but also makes a significant supply of them for the winter. Some of them are not used, some of the acorns sprout and thus new trees grow. Despite the fact that acorns are carried by birds over short distances (from 2 to 4 km), this ensures a good natural recovery of oak plantations. Russian researchers who observed Kedrovka in the Pechora River basin found from 4,000 to 34,000 caches of pine nuts on each hectare of the taiga, which this small bird makes. She hides 6 - 12 nuts under moss and lichen at a distance of up to 2 - C km from the place of collection. Birds usually use only half of the caches in winter. This creates good conditions for the distribution and germination of cedar seeds. Similar stocks are made by squirrels, chipmunks and some other inhabitants of the taiga. It also promotes the spread and restoration of Siberian pine and other plant species.

In general, the role of birds in the distribution of fruits and seeds of plants is so great that even a separate concept is distinguished - ornithochory, Ornithochory (from the Greek Ornis - bird and Horia) is the spread of diaspores by birds.

Peculiar relationships also develop between plants and ants. They not only use plants for food, but also as premises, while protecting it from insect pests. Myrmekochory (from the Greek. Shugsheh - ant and Horia) - the spread of plant diaspores by ants.

Myrmecophilous plants have a significant advantage in the struggle for existence in relation to other plants, since they are protected from many phytophages, primarily from leafworms. A classic example is the coexistence of certain species of acacia and ants in Central America. The latter hide and lay their eggs in large tree hairpins. Ants feed on nectar and young leaves that develop throughout most of the year. In turn, they protect acacias from herbivorous insects and neighboring plants, especially lianas. Ants settle on other types of plants, these relationships can be considered as symbiotic. For their settlement, ants use hollow protective needles of plants, depressions in the walls of stems, voids in porous tubers, and the like. Plants have also developed a number of insect adaptations. Plants such as hoof, snowdrop, corydalis, celandine, violet and some others have small seeds with oily appendages. Insects gnaw off the appendages, and the undamaged seeds are thrown out on the way to the anthill. From the germinated seeds along the ant roads, the so-called "ant alleys" are formed. Maryannik grove (Melampyrum nemorosum), which grows in forest clearings and among bushes almost throughout Ukraine, has a white oblong seed, shaped like ant cocoons. Insects bring it into the anthill, and when it darkens after ripening, they throw it outside, where it successfully germinates. For the construction of anthills, dandelion and larch seeds are used. In total, according to V. Schafer (in 1956), ants in a beech forest use the seeds of 45 species of herbaceous plants, in a mixed oak forest - 80 species, in a pine forest - 16, and in a spruce forest - 9 species. In the process of such use, the resettlement of plants occurs, and the conditions for their growth become better.

The relationship of plants and animals in biogeocenosis is not limited to direct interaction associated with foraging behavior, resettlement, protection, etc. The activities of animals to change the soil cover have a significant indirect effect on plants. In general, the biomass of animals in the soil is quite significant (Table 9.3).

Table 9.3

Medium the value of animal biomass in soils of different zones

The result of various activities of animals in the soil are:

Soil enrichment with organic matter;

Change mineral composition soil by bringing deeper soil and subsoil particles to the surface;

Changing the physical structure of the soil (loosening, compacting, ensuring the supply of air and moisture, reducing capillarity)

Creation of Nanorelief by ejection of earth to the surface;

soil erosion;

Creation of conditions for seepage of water from canals and reservoirs.

Thus, animals play an important role in the cycle of substances in the soil. The acceleration of the decomposition of organic substances occurs due to the following processes:

Physical grinding of plant tissues and an increase in surface area for further activity of bacteria and fungi;

Selective breakdown of certain substances, especially carbohydrates;

The transformation of plant residues into humus;

Mixing decomposed plant residues with the mineral part of the soil;

Formation complex aggregates organic matter with mineral fractions of the soil.

Invertebrates that exist directly in the ground are divided into two groups:

microfauna - animals of microscopic size, imperceptible or almost imperceptible to the naked eye

mesofauna - animals of small and medium sizes.

Microfauna include simple, flatworms, nematodes, mites, primitive wingless insects. To the mesofauna - earthworms, centipedes, mollusks and some insects (both larvae and adults). According to the way of feeding, the ground fauna belongs mainly to saprophytes. It is with this that its role in soil formation and, indirectly, in plant life is connected. For example, earthworms are of great importance in soil formation, especially in the forest zone. Even C. Darwin noted that after the passage of soil particles through the digestive tract of the earthworm, a uniform mixing of organic substances occurs. In addition, these animals deepen fallen leaves into the soil, contributing to the formation of humus. Experiments with vine showed that earthworms provide conditions for more intensive mineralization of organic residues in the soil (Table 9.4). Studies have also shown that after passing through the digestive tract of the earthworm, conditions are created for an increase in the amount of microflora by 4-5 times (Table 9.5).

Table 9.4

The influence of earthworm activity on the rate of decomposition of the vine

(According to Anstett, 1951)

the date definition
	version without worms	in the version with worms	with worms up to 1 / THEM, then without them	with worms at 15.IH

Table 9.5

The total number of microorganisms in the soil and in the emissions from the digestive tract of earthworms (in thousand pieces per 1 g of abs. dry matter)

The soil cover is affected not only by invertebrates, but also by vertebrates. The burrowing activity of moles plays a huge role in forest and meadow phytocenoses. They dry up the soil, change its structure, creating conditions for the growth and development of plants, especially cereals. It has been proven that when molehills occupy 2–3% of the forest area, the germination of oak and maple seeds increases by 2 times. Moles in the forest on soddy-podzolic soils annually carry out from a depth of 10 - 40 cm to the surface up to 19 t / ha of soil (Table 9.6). In the oak-spruce forest, as a result of the activity of these animals, the upper (0-10 cm) soil layer is annually enriched with 53 kg / ha of iron, 95 kg / ha of aluminum, 27 kg / ha of calcium and magnesium.

Table 9.6

The amount of soil moved by moles in one year (on the example of a forest in the Moscow region)

(According to B. D. Abaturov, 1968)

The burrowing activity of the wild boar is known in Polissya. With continuous time, animals turn over the turf and disturb the upper soil horizon over vast areas - up to several hectares. The depth of these sometimes reaches 30 - 40 cm. This leads to mixing of the upper organic soil layer with the mineral one, which increases the process of mineralization of organic residues, creates conditions for seed plant renewal, and destroys the larvae of harmful insects. At the same time, the wild boar destroys stocks of acorns, nuts, fruits, damages crops of tree species, the roots of many plants, and the like. In some places (for example, in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, Belarus), the burrowing activity of the wild boar has led to the replacement of broad-leaved tree species by Norway spruce and birch. But in each case, its role will be different. In the case when there was a good harvest of nuts, acorns and other fruits, the wild boar does not affect the natural regeneration of the forest, and when the harvest is low, it eats away the fruits almost completely, which prevents the emergence of tree species (Fig. 9.10).

Rice. 9.10. Relationship between the number of acorns and the intensity of their destruction by wild boars in Belovezhskaya Pushcha.

The physical and chemical properties of the soil are affected not only by those animals that directly live in it or get food from it, but also by those that come into contact with its surface. For example, in the tundra and on rocky islands, giant bird settlements are formed, under which a huge amount of excrement is concentrated. The soil is enriched with organic matter, especially nitrogen-containing, which provides conditions for the successful growth of plants.

Another positive value of animals for the conservation of plants should also be noted. We are talking about eating birds and insects by entomophages of insect pests. With mass reproduction of gypsy moth and winter moth, birds can eat 40 - 50% of caterpillars and 40 - 75% of adults. Entomophagous insects destroy up to 43% of the gypsy moth at the egg stage and up to 80% at the pupal stage. Studies conducted in the Lapland Reserve (northwestern part of Russia) found that in the stomachs of insectivorous birds, harmful insects (barbels, bedbugs, sawflies, bark beetles, leaf beetles, weevils, etc.) were 2.5 times more than useful (Table 9.7).

Thus, plants, animals and microorganisms that exist nearby enter into various territorial and nutritional relationships. These connections are beneficial to some, harmful to others, and for others they can be almost insignificant. Within the biogeocenosis, there is a significant number of biotic relationships, which can be conditionally divided into four groups (Fig. 9.11):

Relationships in which both species in contact have a benefit (÷ +)

Relationships in which one species benefits, while the other either does not feel harm at all, or it is minimal (+ 0);

Relationships in which one species receives a clear benefit, while the other is suppressed so much that it may die (+ -)

Relationships in which both species are suppressed (- -).

Table 9.6

The ratio of the number of harmful and beneficial insects in the content of the stomachs of some birds

birds	amount stomachs	harmful		Useful
		amount insects,	general quantities	amount insects,	general quantities
three-toed woodpecker
black-headed
Lapland chickadee

Rice. 9.11. Scheme of forms of biotic relationships in biogeocenoses

To mutually beneficial relations, in addition to mutualism, also belongs Protocooperation.

Protocooperation is a form of relationship between living organisms in which different species benefit from coexistence.

Unlike mutualism, protocooperation is not a necessary condition for the existence of different types of living organisms. For example, pollination of herbaceous plants in meadows takes place with the help of insects. For both groups of living organisms, the benefit of such interaction is obvious - plants are pollinated, and animals get food. But it does not matter for the formation of seeds or for the nutrition of insects which species of plants and animals take part in such mutually beneficial relationships.

A useful-neutral form of relations between living organisms is commensalism and its varieties - synoikia and inquilinism. The last two forms of relationships are characteristic of animals.

Sinoikia (from the Greek Synoikia - living together) is a form of coexistence of species, in which one species lives in the dwelling of another without interfering with the existence of the owner.

Sinoikia is also called lodging. Tenants tend to eat leftovers from the owner's food. An example of synoikia would be the coexistence of marine crustaceans with annelids. Close in form, but different in biological content, in Sinoikia is inquilinism.

Inquilinism (from lat. Inquilinus - tenant, resident) - a form of coexistence of species, in which one of the species, penetrating the dwelling of another, displaces or destroys the owner.

An inquiline animal, penetrating into the dwelling of another animal, usually destroys the owner. Quite often, plants are the scene of such battles.

For example, the larvae of some insects, settling in the galls of plants, first destroy the larvae of the gall-forming insect, and then begin to feed on the walls of the gall.

Mutually harmful relationships between living organisms in a biogeocenosis include various types of competition, which were also analyzed in this section. The consequence of competition is that both components experience a certain oppression or limitation of life. In ecosystems, competitive relations are an important factor in regulating the number of populations.

Summarizing the analysis of the main biotic relationships in biogeocenosis, it should be noted that these forms do not exhaust all possible relationships between living organisms that can be formed in ecosystems. Indeed, within any grouping there are hundreds and even thousands of different species belonging to completely different groups of organisms and a wide range of adaptations and requirements for the conditions of existence. Sometimes organisms are able to form bonds that are different in nature. But an analysis of the relationships between all the biotic components of an ecosystem indicates that not a single species in a group exists autonomously, independently of others.

The most direct and tangible form of the influence of animals on plants is the consumption of plant mass for food. At the beginning of any trophic chain (With very rare exceptions ") there is a green autotrophic plant, the creator of organic matter. Green plants represent the first trophic level - the primary producers of organic matter, due to which organisms of the second trophic level live - phytophages (animals, microorganisms, and in some cases also plants.) A few specific examples of food chains (in more complex cases, food webs) are shown in Fig. 175.
Herbivorous animals usually feed on certain plants: either one species (monophages) or a group of closely related species (oligophages). Polyphagous phytophages (polyphages) are less common. Among phytophages there are large animals that consume large amounts of plant matter. An adult moose in summer eats up to 30-40 kg of various plant foods per day, in winter - about 10 kg of shoots and bark, daily eating about 300-400 trees and shrubs. In the list of its fodder plants
1 An example is trophic chains in oceanic ecosystems, where some bacteria play the role of an autotrophic link.

sunlight

Seaweed
) f
Animals that eat algae and bacteria
L
Animals that eat other animals
L
Animals that feed on detritus I I I
Nutrient salts
t
- bacteria
4 Corpses ¦¦ and excreta
1

Bottom sediments
Rice. 175. Examples of food chains in ecosystems (simplified diagrams). A - in an oak forest (according to Rafes P. M., 1968); B - in the pond (according to Zenkevich L. A., 1956)

ny - aspen, mountain ash, birch, various types of willows, gray alder, juniper, etc. 130, red deer - 170. Elk not only eats phytomass, but also causes other damage to plants: ate and damaged branches and stems dry out; trees broken and bent by elk in winter become available to other phytophagous animals (hares, voles). Other large animals also consume plant food - deer, bears, wild boars, hares, etc. They prefer young branches of trees and shrubs ("branch food") as the most accessible and having the greatest food value. For plants, these damages mean the loss of the most important growing parts, a decrease in growth, a change in the direction of growth and branching; in other words, animals also act on plants as a shaping factor (Fig. 176).
Many birds also consume phytomass. In our country, birds eat the seeds of more than 270 species of trees and shrubs. Particularly intensive seed destroyers are crossbills, nutcrackers, great spotted woodpeckers, jays, blackbirds, etc. According to zoologists, in some types of southern taiga (Kalinin region), by the time seeds are shed (end of winter - beginning of spring), no more than one thirds of the original harvest, the rest is destroyed, knocked down or pulled apart by crossbills and woodpeckers (partly squirrels). Birds also eat the green parts of plants: for example, an ordinary capercaillie that feeds on pine (or cedar) needles in winter eats more than 6 kg of it per month. In winter, the buds of deciduous trees and shrubs are eaten in large quantities by black grouse, hazel grouse, and white partridges. In some cases, this affects the nature of branching and forms a kind of crown architectonics (Fig. 177).
Small phytophagous animals, such as mouse-like rodents, eat relatively small amounts of phytomass per individual, but due to the large populations, their activity is generally very noticeable for the vegetation cover. According to experimental data, a mouse (or forest vole) is able to eat from 470 to 1400 spruce seeds per day. Given the high number of mouse-like rodents, one can imagine how many seeds they destroy during the year. This activity of theirs significantly affects the renewal of plants. It is not for nothing that it is noted that in the taiga, young spruce undergrowth usually appears only in the years bountiful harvest spruce seeds, which rodents and other consumers of seeds cannot completely destroy. The vegetative parts of plants are also eaten in mass by mouse-like rodents: for example, in the Tula region, the common vole in some years destroys up to 70% of the young undergrowth of elm, maple, oak and other tree species in clearings.
Very numerous, widespread and diverse consumers of plants are insects. Thus, tree species are damaged

I 1 1 I 1-І L_l I I I ¦ I I L_l I L-
about
b-L.i
35 years
5 10 15 20 25 30

Rice. 176. Influence of damage caused to birch and larch by a hare on the growth of young trees in height (according to Dinesman L. G., 1959). Birches: / - intact, 2, 3 and 4 - with a single, three times and four times bitten top shoot. Lnstveins: 5 - undamaged, b and 7 - with a single and double bitten apical shoot

Rice. 177. Influence of the stone capercaillie on the architectonics of the larch crown (according to Mezhennyi A.A., 1957).
A - untouched crown; B i C - crowns, "trimmed" capercaillie
are given by various specialized groups of insects: leaf-eating, tree-eating (xylophages), sucking juice, etc. A special group is made up of insects and mites - gall-formers: along with nutrition, their effect on the plant is that they cause the growth of plant tissues in the form of galls and other teratological formations (Fig. 178), i.e.


Rice. 178. Galls on leaves (according to Strasburger E. et al., 1962). A - wild rose - Rosa sapipa; B - beech - Fagus sylvatica
direct part of the production of photosynthesis (sometimes quite significant) along a different path, unproductive for the plant itself.
Other invertebrate phytophages (mites, nematodes, protozoa, etc.) also take a large part in the consumption of plant mass.
The role of aquatic animals (from zooplankton to large marine mammals) in the consumption of vegetation in rivers, freshwater reservoirs, seas and oceans is great. Huge amounts of phytoplankton are known to be eaten by whales.
Plant species that are often damaged by phytophagous animals have certain protective adaptations and reactions. Protection against eating are strong integumentary and mechanical tissues, various kinds outgrowths, spines, pubescence, etc. The growth of thistles and other thorn-leaved inedible species on pastures is evidence of the effectiveness of such protection. As special studies on the pastures of Central Asia have shown, protective structures that protect fruits and seeds from eating (thorny outgrowths, thorns, etc.) are especially developed in annuals. This is understandable, since for annuals, reliable seed protection is the key to the continued existence of the species.
Among the protective reactions of plants is their ability to quickly restore losses. So, in the forest-steppe oak forests, during the years of mass outbreaks of reproduction of the oak leafworm, which almost completely eats the foliage, many trees in the middle of summer start to grow buds laid down for the next year, and new foliage develops (sometimes this process is repeated again at the end of summer) . In herbaceous species, the regrowth of vegetative organs after their etching is widespread. In general, the formation of excess phytomass is one of the main ways to protect a plant from leaf-eating insects, seed-eaters, and other phytophages. Another protective reaction is an increase in the photosynthetic activity of leaves left uneaten, which allows plants to maintain the overall productivity of photosynthesis.
More local ways to eliminate damage are the formation of protective tissues (calluses), the release of resins and gums; it is both a "dressing" of the wound and a way to protect against further penetration of pests: for example, many insects get stuck in resins, for others they turn out to be toxic. There are also very specific protective adaptations of plants directed against phytophagous animals: for example, in seaweeds - the deposition of lime, the presence of microscopic and endolithic (living inside a solid substrate) stages in the development cycle; however, these same features help to transfer other adverse influences. marine environment(storms, surf, etc.).
The biochemical unsuitability of plant tissues for the phytophage can serve as a protective property. Some “secondary” chemical compounds produced by the plant that are not directly involved in its metabolism are poisonous or repellent (repellants). A number of alkaloids, glucosides, and other toxic substances give plants a bitter or unpleasant taste. Cases of a kind of mimicry are based on this: some edible plants in the process of natural selection acquired the appearance, smell and taste poisonous species as a means of protection against eating. Sometimes poisonous properties appear only during the most important period of the year for plants; for example, on the Central Asian pastures, sheep almost do not eat annual saltwort and wormwood at the beginning of the growing season (before the formation of seeds), since at this time the plants contain a lot of alkaloids; after fruiting, these same species become quite edible.
These features provide plants with relative resistance to being eaten by animals. Protective properties and reactions in plants testify not to the one-sided influence of animals, but to the interaction of phytophagous animals and plants as one of the forms of biotic relationships in ecosystems. Plant populations usually have a sufficient margin of resistance to being eaten by animals; as a result of the joint evolution of phytophage animals and plants, their relations are balanced in such a way that the phytophage does not completely destroy the plant species that serves as its source of existence.
However, there are cases of imbalance, when a mass outbreak of phytophage reproduction leads to the death of the host plant population and, as a rule, to a change in the plant community. Thus, in 1965-1966, in northern Finland (Lapland), caterpillars of Oporitiia autumnata completely devastated birch forests of the winding birch - Betula tortuosa over a large area (about 1350 km2); subsequently, a "secondary tundra" developed in their place.
It is appropriate to ask the question: is eating by phytophages an unfavorable factor in the life of plants and can it be identified with “damage”, “harm”, “harmful influences” (these terms are often used when describing the effect on plants of certain groups of phytophages - some animals, birds and especially insects). These terms are quite legitimate in the economic aspect, when it comes to plants that are economically valuable for humans (for example, forest tree species). They are also justified from an autoecological point of view (if we consider the violation of the integrity of a plant individual, or even more so its death as going beyond optimal conditions) and, in part, from a population-ecological point of view (if we take into account the adverse consequences of a decrease in the number of populations). However, at the ecosystem level, assessments of "harmfulness" largely lose their meaning: each component of the ecosystem takes its place and performs its work, and phytophagous animals are one of the natural links in the flow of energy and the circulation of substances. Therefore, the consumption of plants for food by phytophages should hardly be considered only as an unfavorable factor in the life of plants. Moreover, phenomena that are habitually assessed as undesirable at the ecosystem level may turn out to be conducive to the intensification of the overall biological cycle. Thus, during mass outbreaks of insect pests in forests and eating large amounts of foliage, the mineralization (and hence the return to the biological cycle) of organic matter entering the soil is sharply accelerated: organic residues that have passed through the digestive tract of insects decompose incomparably faster than leaves in bedding.
An important aspect of animal activity is also the redistribution of organic residues over the territory; without their participation, they would be distributed much less evenly.
The destruction and damage of plant mass by animals occurs not only when it is directly used for food, but also in other cases. One of them is the use of plants in the construction of dwellings. It is known how great the use of plant material by beavers in the construction of dams: they fell large trees and cut the bushes (in addition, some of the trees are gnawed and left to stand on the vine, dooming them to dry out). Forest mouse-like rodents use herbaceous plants for soft lining of burrows. Leaf-cutter bees of the genus Megachile and others cut circles and ellipses from leaf blades to build a shelter for larvae, tube-roller insects

Rice. 179. Damage to leaves during the construction of dwellings by insects (according to Fabre J-A, 1963) A - leaf cutter bee; B - pipe beetle
they roll the leaves into a tube in which the larva develops (Fig. 179). These examples can be continued many times.
Eating and other use of plant mass by animals is usually accompanied by mechanical effects - injury to plants (trampling, breakage, etc.). Not all broken or torn parts of plants are eaten. An example of a very uneconomical use of phytomass is the muskrat, which feeds on coastal aquatic plants: for example, in cut plants (reed, reeds, sedges), it eats an insignificantly small part, the rest of the plant dies. The damage inflicted on plants by mouse-like rodents is not limited to the eating of phytomass: bitten or gnawed leaves and stems die, plants are used to set up "feeding tables" on which not all plants are eaten. Leaf-eating insects leave stubs from the leaves, which then dry out.
Big influence plants are affected by the burrowing activity of animals (wild boars, excavators, mouse-like rodents, soil invertebrates). In forests, the number of burrows of mouse-like rodents alone can reach several hundred per hectare. The impact of earthmovers on. plants are both the burial of above-ground parts under soil emissions, and the direct destruction of underground storage organs, and damage to root systems, often leading to the drying of the plant, and a change in the structure of the soil and its ecological regimes.
Such forms of animal influence on the soil as compaction of the surface layers, destruction of the litter and breaking of the sod, enrichment with organic residues, etc., are also essential for plant life. At the same time, the violation of the integrity of the forest litter partly contributes to the seed renewal of plants; in the places of wild boar burrows, self-seeding and root shoots of trees and shrubs appear in the mass.
An example of a variety of direct and indirect influences of animals on plants is such a complex form of influence as grazing (which can partly be considered as an anthropogenic influence, since it is organized and directed by man). Eating plants by livestock leads not only to the destruction of the plant mass; as a result of selective eating of the most preferred species, the species composition and structure of pasture herbage. So, with a strong pasture load, many valuable herbs fall out and, on the contrary, inedible ones grow - poisonous, prickly, etc. Plants that easily endure trampling get an advantage on pastures - with creeping growth, the ability to root broken parts, rosette forms (for example , overgrowing of pastures with knotweed, or bird buckwheat, - Polygonum aviculare - the formation of the so-called "cleaning"). Some species in the process of adaptation are able to form special pasture forms (undersized, rosette or flattened on the ground). Examples are plantains, dandelions, etc.
Other consequences of grazing are fertilizing and breaking up sods, which contributes to the normal renewal of plants.
The influence of grazing is connected not only with human economic activity. Long before the development of the southern Russian steppes by man, huge herds of wild ungulates - antelopes, tarpans grazed there. It is believed that this factor played a significant role in the formation of steppe vegetation, as well as huge herds of bison in the formation of the vegetation cover of the North American prairies. This is evidenced years of experience held in the steppe reserve "Askania Nova". Steppe felt accumulated in fenced and ungrazed areas, the water regime and soil aeration worsened, which led to difficult renewal and loss of first feather grass, and then other characteristic and valuable steppe plants, and, finally, to degradation of the steppe herbage. Obviously, grazing in small doses is a natural and necessary factor that supports the very existence of steppe vegetation.
But even when pastures are overloaded, gradual degradation of vegetation occurs. Its different stages are well traced in space in the form of ring zones around steppe wells and watering holes.
Vegetation in this case can also play an indicator role, indicating a different degree of pasture load. So, with excessive grazing ("failure") in the herbage of meadows, "pasture" plants begin to predominate - knotweed, meadow bluegrass - Roa pratense. In the steppes, such plants are bulbous bluegrass - P. bulbosa, Tatar quinoa - Atriplex tatarica, hornhead. In the tundra, with excessive use of the lichen cover by deer, slowly growing lichens fall out, and the tundra becomes mossy.
Unrestrained grazing in steppe zone contributes to the degradation of the steppe herbage and the northward movement of southern steppe and semi-desert plants. So, for 150-180 years of the existence of the Derkul stud farm (Luhansk region), in areas subjected to intensive grazing and driving of horses, the forb-grass steppe was replaced by semi-desert groups, where annuals appeared in mass (for example, ebelek - Ceratocarpus arenarius, whose range as a result moved farther north).
The role of animals in the pollination of plants is widely known. Pollination by insects - entomophily - contributed to the development of a number of fine adaptations in plants and insects, which have been repeatedly described in special and popular literature. Let us mention here such interesting adaptations of entomophilous flowers as patterns that form "travel threads" to nectaries and stamens (often visible only in ultraviolet rays visible to insects); the difference in flower color before and after pollination (for example, in lungwort, freshly blossomed flowers are especially attractive to insects) pink flowers containing a lot of nectar, and already pollinated or fading flowers become lilac and blue in color); synchronization of diurnal rhythms of corolla opening and nectar release with pollinator activity rhythms; structural features of the corolla and stamens, ensuring the unmistakable entry of pollen onto the body of the insect, and from it onto the stigma of another flower; etc. Yes numerous examples flowers "designed" for the mode of action of a particular pollinator. One of them is the flowers of the hoof - Asarum erigoraeum, pollinated by ants and, accordingly, do not rise from under the forest floor.
At the same time, under conditions unfavorable for insects, a secondary loss of entomophily sometimes occurs. Thus, under the canopy of the dark coniferous taiga, many plants with flowers that are entomophilous in structure, due to a lack of pollinators, pass to cleistogamy, autogamy, or vegetative reproduction.


Rice. 180. Fruits of epizoochoric plants equipped with hooks and trailers (according to Herschel K-, Grunert Ch., 1958): A-Caucalis
lappula;

- Harpagophijton procumbens

Birds also take part in the pollination of plants (jav-lt; ornithophilia). In tropical and subtropical areas southern hemisphere about 2,000 species of birds pollinate the flowers while searching for nectar or catching insects hiding in the corollas. The most famous pollinators are nectaries

Rice. 181. Plants with endozoochoric fruits distributed by birds.
A - Rhamnus franguta; B - Euonymus europaea; B - E. verrucosa
(Africa, South Asia, Australia) and hummingbirds (South America). In the latter case, birds are a significant competitor to insects: in areas of large distribution of hummingbirds, the insect world is much poorer, and some butterflies, instead of feeding on nectar and pollen, switched to feeding on rotting garbage.
The flowers of ornithophilous plants are large and brightly colored. prevails bright red coloration most attractive to hummingbirds and other birds. Should
note that it is generally quite uncommon in the plant world for a number of physical and chemical reasons. It is very rare in temperate and northern latitudes, where pollinators are insects that poorly distinguish between red shades, and where, therefore, such a color could not be fixed by selection. Ornithophilous flowers contain a lot of nectar. For example, in Australian plants of the genus Dorianthe, each flower contains several milliliters of nectar. In some ornithophilous flowers, there are special protective devices, preventing nectar from pouring out during the movements of the flower.
A much rarer case of zoogamy (pollination by animals) is the pollination of flowers by mammals. Australian shrubs of the genus Driandra are pollinated by kangaroos, who willingly drink their abundant nectar, passing from flower to flower. Other pollinators of Australian plants are marsupial flying squirrels that suck nectar from eucalyptus flowers, marsupial dormouse, narrow-winged heel-walker (or "honey mouse"), "bats" that hunt insects sleeping in the corollas of flowers. In the forests of Africa and South America as tree pollinators



Rice. 181. Continued
rocks are small nectary bats. As an adaptation to such unusual pollinators, plants have developed such peculiar features as flowering before leafing, flowers with a wide bell-shaped corolla (when pollinated by nocturnal animals, it opens at night), musty smell, slimy nectar.
Animals play an important role in the distribution of plant rudiments - fruits, seeds, spores. The phenomenon of zoochory has certain ecological patterns and is expressed differently, depending on the habitat of the plant and the nature of its contacts with the animal carrier. Plants of open areas more often form epizoochoric seeds and fruits that are carried on the surface of the animal's body, and in accordance with this, fruits and seeds have various devices for fixing and holding (hooks, outgrowths, trailers, etc.), for example, large burdock and cobweb - Arctium lappa, A. tomentosum, common Velcro - Lappula myosotis, etc. (Fig. 180). In some species (for example, in terrestrial tribulus - Tribulus terrestris or the South African plant - Harpagophyton procumbens), sharp spikes are developed on the fruits that stick into the legs of animals (Fig. 180, B).
In the shrub layer of forests, where many birds live, endozoochoric species predominate, whose fruits and seeds have bright color, attracting birds juicy pericarp (Fig. 181) and therefore willingly eaten and distributed by birds. These are the fruits of forest shrubs - euonymus, hawthorn, wild rose. The dense mechanical tissue protects the seeds from damage as they pass through the animal's digestive tract. Often, the digestive juices of birds or animals digest the endosperm of endozoochoric seeds, but do not act on their embryos. Moreover, there are plants (for example, among the Araliaceae family Far East), in which the embryo of the falling seeds is underdeveloped and ripens at a temperature of about 40 "°C, which corresponds to the temperature of the stomach of birds.
Eating berries and fruits, the germs are carried by herbivorous animals, and even predators (though at a relatively short distance). One of the ways of distribution of fruits and seeds is their transfer by animals and birds during the arrangement of "pantries" for the winter (usually these stocks are not completely destroyed). So, jays not only feed on acorns, but also arrange supplies, carrying fruits quite far in the esophagus. For example, in the Lisinsky forestry (Leningrad region) in a spruce forest 1-3 km from old oaks, young oak shoots are found - obviously from acorns brought into the spruce forest by jays constantly flying there. An inhabitant of the Siberian taiga - a nutcracker bird - hides "pine nuts" in its pantries in moss and under the litter, sometimes at a distance of hundreds of meters and even several kilometers from the place of collection. Small animals also make stocks - squirrels, mice, etc. Up to 5 kg of "pine nuts" were found in the burrows of a chipmunk. It was possible to estimate the size of the storage activity of mouse-like rodents in laboratory conditions, for example, in one of the experiments, a pair of mice accumulated 45 thousand beech nuts with a total weight of about 9 kg in a month. Interestingly, rodents store undamaged, selected (i.e., the most viable) seeds.

Rice. 182. Corydalis halleri seeds with elaiosomes

In the grass cover of forests, there are many plants whose seeds are dispersed by ants and have appropriate adaptations. Such species are called myrmecochoric, and the phenomenon itself is called myrmecochoria. Many forest grasses (hoof-hoof - Asarum eugoraeum, corydalis - Corydalis halieri, blueberry - Scilia sibirica, goose onion - Gagea lutea, various types of violets, etc.) have oil-rich outgrowths on their seeds - seedlings, or "ant bodies" (elaiosomes), which serve as bait for ants (Fig. 182). In the oak maryannik - Melampyrum petnorosum, white oblong seeds resemble ant cocoons in shape, and the ants drag them into the anthill, and then these same seeds, but already darkened and ripened, are thrown away during harvesting. In the same way, seeds with eaten seedlings are thrown out. The seeds of some species (dandelion, rattles, larch) are used by ants as material for building anthills (but some of them are dropped along the way).
As a result, ants can remove seeds from the mother plant at a distance of several tens of meters. Another form of myrmecochory is the dispersal of spores by leaf-cutting ants, which they breed in their nests.

Being part of various plant communities, often very complexly organized, plants experience diverse influences of neighboring plants and themselves have an impact on cohabitants. The forms of mutual influences are very diverse and depend on the method and degree of contacts between plants, conductors of influences, etc. Of the various classifications of forms of relationships in Soviet literature, the most common classification is that of V. N. Sukachev (given in a generalized form).
The main forms of relationships between plants (according to V. N. Sukachev, N. V. Dylis et al., 1964)

C02, H20, light

Rice. 187. Scheme of participation of fungi in the carbon cycle in an ecosystem (according to Herley J., 1971). The left side is a symbiotic cycle with the direct use of photosynthesis products, the right side is a decomposition cycle

CM


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The animal world is one of the most important components of the natural environment. Without it, the existence of our planet is impossible.

Lesson Type : study and primary consolidation of new knowledge

Didactic goal : create conditions for understanding and comprehending a block of new educational information

Basic concepts -

Rough vegetable food. Trampling.

Main questions

1. What herbivorous animals do you know? How adapted are they

digestive system to nourish various plant organs?

2. How are pasture plants and ungulates grazing on it interrelated?

Draw a diagram of their interaction.

3. How do animals affect their environment in places

watering and recreation?

4. What damage do insects cause to plants?

Animals live among plants and have a great influence. a life. First of all, they use plants for food and thus for themselves the necessary substances and energy. Food sources for: are grasses, woody plants, and lichens. food composition; getative parts of plants - roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. The vegetative parts of plants are coarse plant food.

By eating the vegetative organs of plants, animals will naturally change both the state of the plants themselves and the environment in which they grow. In response to damage by animals, plants have developed their own adaptations that allow them to regenerate (restore) the vegetative organs disturbed by animals. Therefore, damage to plants does not lead to their death and they protect their ability for further growth and the integrity of the organism.

Moving in search of food on the surface of the soil, animals inflict primarily mechanical damage on plants - they break off the stems of the stems, pull out the grasses. Plants are especially damaged by ungulates during grazing, when animals trample them with their feet. However, long-term observations have shown that animal grazing does not destroy pastures. When trampling, grass seeds are deeply pressed into the soil, as a result of which their germination improves. In addition, trampling improves the conditions for the decay of dead plant parts and the supply of nutrients to the soil.

It turned out that moderate trampling along with grazing favors the development of a stable grass cover in the steppes. If cattle grazing stops, the vegetation cover changes in the steppe, which is accompanied by a strong growth of weeds.

The rainforest does not pass by trampling. The vegetation of tropical forests is subjected to especially strong trampling in places of constant movement or accumulation of elephants and ungulates. For example, African elephants, moving along permanent paths to watering places, significantly expand the clearings in tropical forest and where, together with ungulates, they come to howl, they trample the grass cover, break bushes, and wallow in the mud. Such actions of animals significantly change the appearance of the territories in which they live.

There are cases of a sharp impact of animals on vegetation, in which the appearance of the terrain has irreversibly changed. Thus, Saint Helena Atlantic Ocean in the past it was covered with forest. The people who developed the island brought goats with them. Having run wild and multiplied, the goats destroyed the entire undergrowth, starniki and herbs. The territory of the island became treeless, open to the winds, the fertile soil was washed away by tropical downpours.

Rice. 1: 1 - types of plant damage by insects (a - "mining", b - clotting, c - galls); 2 - clutch and larvae of cabbage butterflies on leaves; 3 - May beetle larvae (in the soil near the roots).

Insects lay their eggs on the leaves of many plants. The caterpillars that subsequently emerged from them feed on these leaves. Plant roots are also often damaged by pest larvae (Fig. 1).

There is also an opposite version of the food interaction of animals with plants: animals serve as food objects for plants. In Russia, more than a dozen species of carnivorous plants are known - these are various sundews living in sphagnum swamps, and water inhabitants - pemphigus. The need for food by insects arises when they are deficient in the environment of mineral substances, in particular those containing nitrogen.

Information sources: Animal ecology. A guide for students grade 7 of a secondary school V.G. Babenko; D.V. Bogomolov; etc. 2002.-128s.il .

February 14th, 2018

Plants are considered to be the lungs of our planet. Houseplants play several beneficial roles in human life. They decorate our home, and also purify the air, filling it with oxygen. In addition, some plants may be edible or medicinal. Everyone's favorite aloe vera comes to mind. However, there are a number of plants that live in our rooms, the dangers and toxicity of which we did not even suspect.

But they pose a real danger to children and pets, as well as to elderly people with poor health. So, if you have the following 10 plants in your home, we advise you to get rid of them immediately.

Poisoning can occur after:

-eating leaves or touching leaves;

- ingestion of berries, flowers or roots of a plant;

- skin contact with plant sap;

-eating soil, land from under plants;

- drinking water from pallets.

Most flower shops do not display warning labels on potted plants, which indicate possible toxicity and toxicity.

Therefore, before purchasing one or another beautiful flower, find out everything about this plant, in particular, what potential threat does it carry for your family members and pets.

1. Philodendron

Philodendrons are many people's favorite indoor plants.

Perhaps this is one of the most popular houseplants. The advantages of the flower are obvious: it has an attractive appearance, grows quickly and is not particularly whimsical.

But while this plant is the perfect addition to any room, it contains calcium oxalate crystals, which are toxic to humans and animals.

Philodendrons can be curly and non-curly. It's very important to keep climbing plants hanging out of reach of children or pets, as well as trim the leaves and antennae in time.

Non-climbing plants should be stored on high windowsills or shelves so that children or animals cannot reach them.

Side effects in humans:

People, especially young children, may experience the following reaction to the plant: dermatitis, skin irritation, swelling of the mucous membranes, and digestive upset when eating the leaves of the plant.

There are several cases when, after eating leaves by children, the incident ended in death.

Philodendron has a much more serious effect on pets. We can talk about spasms, cramps, pain and swelling.

By the way, the plant poses the greatest threat to cats.

2. Epipremnum golden

Epipremnum golden or in the common people the devil's ivy is considered one of the most sought-after indoor plants. It does a great job of purifying indoor air.

In addition, the attractive appearance of the plant will leave few people indifferent. Beautiful variegated leaves are a real decoration for the room.

Devil's ivy is, in fact, one of the most useful houseplants for removing harmful impurities from the air.

The advantage of the flower is also that it propagates easily and quickly from its own cuttings. So pretty soon you have a whole mini plantation of devil's ivy in your house.

However, is it safe for households?

It is believed that in small quantities this plant causes almost no harm. But in rare cases, it can also cause serious side effects in animals and humans.

Side effects in humans:

Burning sensation in the mouth, skin irritation, swelling of the lips, tongue and throat, vomiting, spasms and diarrhea.

The effect of the plant on cats and dogs:

Salivation, choking, swelling of the mouth and tongue, difficulty breathing and indigestion. In some cases, the plant can also lead to kidney failure and/or death.

3. Syngonium stalk-leaved

Many people confuse this plant with the philodendron. Indeed, they are similar and it is also very easy to care for.

It is usually mixed in gardens with other plants that require similar care. This undeniably beautiful plant has heart-shaped leaves and is often given as a gift to loved ones.

Young plants are very dense. Older plants produce arrow-shaped stems and leaves.

The flower regularly sheds leaves and produces new shoots, therefore, it is recommended to regularly check the plant and clean it of fallen leaves.

Side effects in humans and animals:

Irritated skin, indigestion, vomiting.

4. Lilies (and all the plants we call lilies)

Most types of lilies, including the so-called Asian lily, very toxic. They are especially dangerous for cats.

Everyone knows this beautiful flower. Few flowers can boast such beauty, grace and elegance as the lily.

These tender plants often decorate rooms, and many flower fans are happy to keep them in bedrooms and nurseries. This is absolutely impossible to do!

Of course, not all lilies are toxic, and some can only harm animals. However, if you are not sure what type of lily is growing in your pot, it is best to play it safe.

Be careful with lilies!

You shouldn't keep them indoors. But if you love this flower so much, and are not ready to give it up completely, then the best solution would be to plant lilies in the garden, front garden. In other words, this flower will become absolutely safe outdoors.

More toxic varieties of lilies include the following plants:

- Calla lily (which can be fatal for children);

- Easter lily;

- Lily rubrum;

- Tiger lily;

- Daylily or day lily;

-Asian lily.

Depending on the species, lilies can cause poisoning, which manifests itself in various symptoms. As mentioned above, it is cats that are more susceptible to the poison of this flower.

Side effects in humans:

indigestion, vomiting, headache blurred vision and skin irritation.

The effect of the plant on cats:

All parts of the lily are considered toxic. Symptoms of poisoning include vomiting, drowsiness and lack of appetite. Renal and liver failure, if not treated promptly, can lead to the death of the animal.

5. Spathiphyllum

Although spathiphyllum are not true lilies, they are often referred to as this particular species. They are as toxic as lilies and pose some danger to humans and pets.

Remember, the peace lily, or Spafiphyllum, does not belong to the lily family.

There are many varieties of the peace lily, such as Mauna Loa, which is popular with flower growers. This type of plant is one of the most common plants for home decor and room decorations.

This evergreen perennial from South America with glossy leaves and a unique white flower that blooms majestically among the leaves looks very, very impressive.

In addition, these plants love the shade, which makes them ideal for apartments and rooms with little sunlight.

They are also excellent air purifiers. However, like the previous plants on this list, they can cause painful symptoms, and sometimes, if ingested by humans or animals, cause their death.

Side effects in humans:

Lips, mouth and tongue burn and swell, swallowing reflexes are difficult, vomiting, nausea and diarrhea, speech is taken away.

Information about the toxicity of peace lilies is rather contradictory. However, some sources provide information about harm to dogs and cats.

When poisoned by a plant, the following symptoms are observed: burning of the skin, excessive salivation, diarrhea, dehydration, lack of appetite and vomiting. If treatment is not started on time, poisoning can lead to kidney failure, which will eventually lead to the death of the animal.

6. Dieffenbachia

Dieffenbachia is also called dumb reed.

This plant is similar to the philodendron and contains the same oxalate crystals. Silent reeds have thick stems and fleshy leaves that are usually bright green in color with occasional yellow or green veins.

Due to the fact that the plant has very impressive heavy leaves, it is usually placed on the floor or a low pedestal.

Symptoms of poisoning in humans and animals:

Ingestion of Dieffenbachia usually results in mild to moderate poisoning in both humans and pets.

Symptoms of poisoning include the following: severe pain in the mouth, salivation, burning, swelling and numbness of the throat, severe swelling of the tongue.

7. Oleander

Oleander is one of the most deadly and poisonous ornamental plants.

This unusual beautiful flower looks so gentle and innocent. But this is exactly the case when appearances are deceiving: the plant is so toxic that even honey obtained from its nectar can cause symptoms of poisoning and even lead to death.

There are several cases of fatal poisoning in adults when the pollen of this flower enters the body.

As for children, then, of course, they are all the more exposed to the danger of being poisoned by the poison of a deadly flower. So be sure to keep oleander out of your home. Stay away from this flower.

If, nevertheless, there is a desire for it to grow with you, try to make it open area outdoors.

Side effects in humans:

Feeling unwell, arrhythmia, dizziness, trembling in the body.

The effect of the plant on cats and dogs:

Arrhythmia, vomiting and cooling of the extremities.

8. Caladium

Beautiful, decorative flower Calladium is toxic to both humans and animals.

Caladium is another South American guest who came to our homes. This plant has dense foliage. That is why it is so popular, both for external landscape design and for interior decoration of housing.

This plant is commonly known as Elephant Ears or Angel Wings.

Caladium is rich in its color palette. Red, pink and white are the most common colors for this plant. Such a variety makes them attractive for decorating rooms.

They grow well in low light, and sometimes produce very unusual flowers, similar to calla or lily flowers.

The plant is considered toxic to humans and animals. At the same time, both the leaves and stems of the plant, and its flowers are dangerous.

Side effects in humans:

After the parts of the plant enter the human body, the following symptoms can be observed: burning in the oral cavity, swelling of the mouth, tongue, lips and throat, difficulty breathing, slow speech, slow swallowing reflexes.

All this in some cases can lead to blockage of the airways, which, in turn, can lead to death.

The effect of the plant on cats and dogs:

Nausea, vomiting, spasms, head shaking, drooling, and difficulty breathing.

9. Sansevieria three-lane (Teschin language)

Sansevieria three-lane is an ornamental plant better known in the common people as mother-in-law's tongue.

It is characterized by pointed oblong leaves.

Due to its very impressive size, this houseplant is usually placed on the floor or on small hills.

Smooth, vertically elongated leaves, indeed, resemble the shape of the tongue. The plant may be denser or more sparse.

The foliage is characterized by variegated coloring, in particular, green color with shades of white, yellow and silver.

It is believed that mother-in-law's tongue also protects the house from evil spirits and negative energy, and that the plant will certainly bring good luck to its owner. It is for this reason that many people try to acquire a plant or give it to their loved ones.

But pets are unlikely to treat this flower with the same joy. After all, the plant is recognized by experts as highly toxic and poisonous when ingested.

Side effects in humans:

The level of toxicity to humans is quite low. Poisoning causes short-term symptoms such as pain in the mouth, salivation and nausea. In rare cases, the plant can cause a dermatological reaction, but the plant is generally toxic only when the leaves are ingested.

The effect of the plant on cats and dogs:

Poisoning from this plant can cause excessive salivation, pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

10. Ivy

Ivy (often referred to as English ivy) is one of the most climbing and original plants in the world.

Agree, a very charming sight when this flower, spreading over stones or brick walls, creates a cool, lush canopy in the form of a leafy carpet.

Indoors, ivy hanging from baskets creates a romantic cascading display.

Due to its splendor, ivy is widely used in holiday decor. However, few people know about the other properties of this plant: it perfectly removes fecal particles that enter the air, which makes this plant an indispensable assistant if there are pets in the house.

However, be also careful. Do not allow ivy particles to enter the body. Its leaves or stems, if ingested, can cause poisoning.

Side effects of the plant in humans:

Ivy can cause severe skin irritation. Ingestion of the leaves can cause burning in the mouth and throat, numbness, convulsions, fever and rash. The consequences can be quite serious when eating a large amount of the leaves of the plant.

The effect of the plant on animals:

In cats and dogs, the plant can cause diarrhea, hyperactivity, difficulty breathing, weakness, body tremors, or vomiting.

Just because these plants are considered potentially dangerous doesn't mean you can't enjoy them in your home. just accept additional measures safety, so that your children and pets do not suffer from them in any way.

Here are a few ways to reduce your exposure to plant toxins in humans and animals:

Keep plants out of the reach of children or animals, in rooms where neither can enter.

Regularly maintain the vital activity of the plant, monitor it and clean it from debris and dust in time.

Be sure to find out if the flower is toxic when buying it.

Be sure to wear gloves while handling flowers and be sure to wash your hands after handling any plants.

When in contact with the plant, in no case should you rub your eyes with your hands or comb the skin.

Trim plants so that children and pets cannot access hanging vines and branches. Well-groomed and timely pruned plants will reward you with fullness of foliage that purifies the air.

Do not forget that plants can be dangerous for pets. Hang them up high on your porch.

Always leave fresh water for pets so that they are not tempted to drink water from plant trays. Plant water can be very toxic.

To prevent cats from gaining access to plants, use special hanging cages to protect flower pots. Cells provide additional protection to plants, and are also used as additional decor, visually decorating the room.

Additional safety tips:

Carry out any manipulations with the soil and plants when there are no children or animals nearby.

Check plants regularly for insects and pests.

Check pots and soil regularly for mold and mildew growth.

Replace broken or cracked pots. This is especially important when it comes to plastic pots.

Make sure the hanging baskets are strong enough to support the weight of the plant.

Keep climbing plants with tendrils away from children and animals. A child or pet can pull a plant off the shelf by simply pulling on the tendrils or vine.

Make sure the shelves or ceiling hooks that the plants are placed on are strong enough to support its weight.

And the last thing: of course, pay attention to if your family has allergies. After all, some plants that are harmless to most people can be a time bomb for those who suffer from asthma or allergies.